


Class 

Book 


COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 







ELEMENTS 


OF 


Moral Science; 


FKANCIS WAYLAND, D.D., 

LATE PEESIDBHI OF BROWN UNIVERSITY. 


ABRIDGED , AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF 
SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES , 

BY THE AUTHOR. 



GOULD AND LINCOLN, 

59 WASHINGTON STREET. 

NEW YORK; SHELDON AND CO. 

1873 . 



I 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by 
GOULD AND LINCOLN, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


*4 


PREFACE. 


In the following work I have attempted to 
present the more important truths of Moral 
Science, in such a form as may be useful in 
Schools and Academies. With this view, it 
as been not merely abridged , but also re¬ 
written; the argument in general omitted, and 
merely the result stated ; and the illustrations 
adapted to the comprehension of the young. 
The style, so far as possible, has been ren¬ 
dered simple; and the words and phrases 
selected with special reference to the ordinary 
language of persons not accustomed to moral 
speculations. Such at least has been the 
attempt. How far it has succeeded, can be 
learned only from experiment. 

To each section and chapter a number of 
Questions have been added. These are not 


iv 


PREFACE. 


designed as aids for learning the text, but as 
exercises for practice after the text has been 
learned. They therefore sometimes involve 
inferences from the truths stated in the text, 
and at other times the practical application of 
the doctrines taught to the purposes and busi¬ 
ness of ordinary life. 

As this work is designed for schools, it may 
not be amiss to suggest the method in which 
the author supposes it may be most success¬ 
fully taught. He would advise that, in general, 
the text be given as a lesson by itself. After 
this has been learned,the succeeding lesson may 
be the questions which follow, with a review of 
the section to which they refer. In this man¬ 
ner I think the pupil will be the most likely to 
exercise his own mind upon the subject, and 
will thus understand it better, and retain it 
more perfectly. It is of course understood, 
that these questions are but a specimen of-those 
which might easily be raised from the subjects 
presented. A thoughtful instructor will derive 


PREFACE. 


V 


great pleasure from adding to them from his 
own reflections. It will also be a useful exer¬ 
cise for each pupil to furnish questions to be 
answered by the other members of the class. 
If the instructor feel disposed to examine more 
fully for himself the reasonings by which the 
doctrines in this work are supported, he will 
find them stated considerably at large in the 
full work from which the present is abridged. 

It deserves also to be remarked that the end 
of the study of Moral Science is to make men 
better. If in this respect it fail, it is at best 
useless. This should be continually borne in 
mind by the instructor. Hence his constant 
object should be so to conduct the recitations 
on this subject as to leave a moral impression 
on the mind of the student, to awaken in him 
a conviction of his own responsibility, and of 
his obligation to obey God, to create in him a 
love of virtue and a hatred of vice, and to teach 
him the blessings derived from self-govern¬ 
ment, purity of character, and undissembled 
1 * 


vi 


PREFACE. 


piety. The instructor can derive no higher 
reward than to witness such moral improve¬ 
ment in the character of those committed to 
his charge. 

With a sincere desire that the present little 
work may be found useful in enabling in¬ 
structors thus to accomplish the highest pur¬ 
poses of their profession, it is committed to 
their hands by the author. 


CONTENTS. 


-*- 

PART FIRST. 

CHAPTER I. 

Page. 

Moral Law, Moral Action, and op Intention. 

Sect. I. Of Moral Law, . . . . 11 

Sect. II. Of Moral Action and of Intention, 15 

CHAPTER II. 

Conscience,.19 

Sect. I. What we mean by Conscience, and 
how Conscience admonishes us, . . . 19 

Sect. II. Of the manner in which we may 
improve or injure our Conscience, . . 25 

Sect. III. Rules for our Moral Conduct , . 34 

CHAPTER III. 

IS A MAN SURE HE DOES RIGHT, WHEN HIS CON¬ 
SCIENCE DOES NOT REPROVE HIM ? . . . 39 

CHAPTER IV. 

Happiness,.42 

CHAPTER Y. 


The Imperfection of Conscience, . 


48 



CONTENTS 


viii 


CHAPTER VI. 

The Nature and Defects of Natural Reli¬ 
gion, . 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Holy Scriptures,.. 


51 

i 

57 


PART SECOND. 


THE DUTIES OF MAN - TO GOD, AND TO HIS FEL¬ 
LOW MAN, OF LOVE TO GOD, OR PIETY. 


CHAPTER I. 

Our obligation to love Qod, 

CHAPTER II. 

Prayer, . 

Sect. I. The nature of Prayer , 
Sect. II. The duty of Prayer , . 
Sect. III. The utility of Prayer , 


64 


77 

77 

81 

85 


CHAPTER III. 

The observance of the Sabbath, ... 88 

Sect. I. The institution of the Sabbath , . 89 

The Mosaic Sabbath , . . 92 

The Christian Sabbath , . 93 

Sect. II. The manner in which the Sabbath 

is to be observed , . . . '. . 95 



CONTENTS. 


ix 


LOVE TO MAN, OR MORALITY. 

CHAPTER I. 

The duties of Reciprocity, .... 99 

CHAPTER II. 

Personal Liberty, and the modes in which 

IT MAY BE VIOLATED, .106 

Sect. I. The Violation of Personal Liberty 
by the individual , ..... 108 

Sect. II. The Violation of Personal Liberty 
by Society, . .112 

CHAPTER III. 

Property,.118 

Sect. I. Nature and origin of the Right of 

Property ,. 118 

Sect. II. The modes in which the Right of 
Property may be violated , .... 122 

Sect. III. Law of Property, or Law of Buyer 

and Seller ,. 125 

Sect. IV. The temporary transfers of Prop¬ 
erty, or the loan of other Property, . . 131 

Insurance, ... . . . 136 

Sect. V. Exchanges when the equivalent is 
immaterial, or Service, .... 139 

CHAPTER IV. 

Character,. 143 

CHAPTER V. 


Reputation, 


147 


X 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER VI. 

Veracity,.154 

Sect. 1. Assertions , ..... 154 

Sect. II. Promises and Contracts , . . 160 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Duties and Rights of Parents, . . 166 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Duties and Rights of Children, . . 174 

CHAPTER IX. 

Duties of Citizens,. 181 

Sect. I. The Nature of Government , . 181 

Sect. II. The different Forms of Govern¬ 
ment .. 190 

Sect. III. The Form of Government in the 

United States .. 194 

V 

THE DUTIES OF BENEVOLENCE. 
CHAPTER I. 

Benevolence,. 199 

CHAPTER II. 

Sect. I. Benevolence to the Necessitous ,' . 208 

Sect. II. Benevolence to the Wicked , . . 214 

Sect. III. Benevolence to the Injurious . 217 

CHAPTER III. 


Our Duties to Brutes 


221 



Or MORAL SCIENCE. 


-- 

PART I. 

CHAPTER I. 

OF MORAL LAW, MORAL ACTION, AND OF 
INTENTION. 

SECTION I. 


OF MORAL LAW. 

Moral science is the science of moral law. 
Whenever men observe that two events are so 
connected together, that, as often as one pre¬ 
cedes, the other always follows it, they apply 
to such a connection the name of law. They 
also call the first event the cause , and the sec-, 
ond the effect. For instance: 

It has been observed, that when water is 
cooled down to a certain point, it becomes 
solid, or is changed into ice; and hence, 
chemists have laid it down as a law that 
water freezes at this particular point. Again, 
they have observed, that, if its temperature be 
raised to a certain point, it turns into vapor, 
or boils; hence they have laid it down as 
another law that, at this particular point, 
water boils; that is, they mean to inform us 



12 


OF MORAL LAW. 


of the universal fact, that, whenever, under 
given circumstances, the one event occurs, the 
other event also invariably occurs. And they 
say that cold is the caiise of the freezing of 
water, and heat the cause of its boiling. 

But, it is evident, that two events could not 
be thus invariably connected, unless there 
were some power exerted to connect them, 
and some being, who, at all times, and in all 
places, exerted this power. Hence the fact, 
that the laws of nature exist, teaches us the 
existence of the Supreme Being, the Creator 
and Preserver of all things. And hence, 
every change which we see, is a proof of the 
existence of God, 

And it is also evident, that the Creator has 
connected events together in this manner, in 
order to direct our conduct. Thus, having con¬ 
nected a certain degree of heat with the boil¬ 
ing of water, he intends to teach us, that, if 
we wish to make water boil, we must raise it 
to that degree of heat. And thus, in general, 
since he adheres unchangeably to the laws 
which he has established, we can never either 
accomplish any purpose, or produce any effect, 
by attempting to do it, in any other way', than 
in that which He has appointed. 

Let us now apply this to morals . Every 
one knows that he perceives certain actions to 


OF MORAL LAW. 


13 


be either right or wrong. Every one feels, 
that it is wrong to lie, to steal, to murder, to 
be cruel. Every one feels that it is right to 
tell the truth, to be honest, affectionate, kind 
and grateful. And, if even a young person 
will think for a moment, he will perceive, that 
there are certain results, which always follow 
these two sorts of actions. If any one do 
wrong, as, for instance, if he lie, or steal, or 
abuse another person, he feels a peculiar sort 
of unhappiness, which is called the feeling of 
guilt; he is afraid of being detected, he wishes 
he had not done it, and if he be detected he 
knows that every one dislikes and despises him 
for his conduct: And, on the contrary, if he 
have done right, as, if he have told the truth, 
have been grateful, or have returned good for 
evil, he feels a peculiar sort of pleasure, he i3 
satisfied with himself, and knows that all men 
will look upon him with respect. 

Now, as these events, and a multitude of 
others, are thus found connected together, we 
designate such a connection of the term law. 
And, as the foundation of this connection is 
what is called the moral nature of an action, 
we call the law a moral law. - 

As we find these events, namely, pleasure 
following right actions, and pain following bad 
actions, to be invariable, we know that they 


14 


QUESTIONS. 


must have been connected together by God our 
Creator and our Judge., And, as he has man¬ 
ifestly connected them together for the purpose 
of teaching us, we may hence learn, how he 
wishes us to act. Thus, if God have always 
connected pleasure with honesty, and pain with 
dishonesty, it is as plainly his will that we 
should be honest, as though he had said so by 
a voice from heaven. If every murderer in a 
country be punished with death, it is just as 
clearly a direction for our conduct, without any 
written prohibition of murder, as with it. 

By thus observing the consequences of 
actions, we may learn what, in many respects, 
is the law, or will of our Creator. Besides this, 
however, we have a revelation of his will made 
in the Holy Scriptures, in whi(^h he both in¬ 
forms us how we should act, and also makes 
known to us still further the consequences 
which he has connected both with obedience 
and disobedience. 

These laws, classified and illustrated, form 
the Science of Moral Philosophy. 

QUESTIONS. , 

1. Give an example of some natural law, that is, of 
some event which you always see following some other 
event. 

2. Give an example of some moral law. 

3. How do you prove the existence of God? 


OF INTENTION. 


15 


4. Give an example of some law by which God in¬ 
tends to direct our conduct. 

5. Can you remember any instance in your life, in 
which you have felt the pleasure attending good ac¬ 
tions and the pain attending bad actions ? 

6. Why did God connect pain with one kind of ac¬ 
tions, and pleasure with another kind of actions? 

7. If you were to attend to these pleasures and pains, 
would you not know your duty much better than you 
do, and be much happier than you are ? 

8. Why then do you not attend to them, and act 
accordingly? 

9. Do you think you understand what is meant by 
moral science ? Explain it in your own language. 

SECTION II. 

OF MORAL ACTION AND OF INTENTION. 

It may here be asked, what is a moral 
action? When any one does anything on pur¬ 
pose, we call this an action. 

But, both brutes and men do things on pur¬ 
pose. Animals frequently injure each other, 
and injure men, with the intention of doing so. 

If, however, we compare the actions of brutes 
with those of men, we shall find that we observe 
a difference between them. We feel that the 
brute does not know better , or does not and can- f 
not know that it is wrong; while we feel that 
the man does, or can know that it is wrong. 
Now, as the brute cannot distinguish between 
right and wrong, we do not consider his action 


16 OF INTENTION. 

a moral action; but as the man can make this 
distinction, we call his action a moral action. 

Again, every one knows that we sometimes 
do things by accident, as, we may injure a 
person by throwing a ball, without seeing that 
he is in the way. In this case, we do not feel 
guilt, although we always should feel regret. 
Our conscience does not accuse us, unless we 
either intended to do harm, or were culpably 
negligent. 

Again, we sometimes intend to do some one 
a kindness, and it turns out, in the end, that 
what we have done is an injury to him. Thus, 
suppose I send food to a sick man, and the 
food gives him pain; I regret his pain, but I 
cannot disapprove of my act, for I intended to 
do him a kindness. From these, and such like 
instances, any one may see, that we always 
judge of the moral quality of actions by the 
intention. 

Our intentions may be wrong in several 
ways: 

1. Where we intend to injure another; as 
when we strike a person in anger, or speak 
against another, for the sake of making others 
think badly of him. 

2. Where we intend to gratify ourselves, 
without any regard to the misery we cause to 
others. Such is the case, when ono person 


OF INTENTION. 


17 


makes sport of another, for the sake of fun, 
without haying any malice towards him. We 
have no right to gratify ourselves, at the ex¬ 
pense of the happiness of any one else. 

And, in general, we may lay it down as a 
universal rule, that our intention is wrong, 
whenever we intend to do anything contrary to 
any law of God. This law is summed up in the 
two precepts, thou shalt love the Lord thy God 
with all thy heart; and, as ye would that others 
should do unto you, do ye even so unto them. 

3. As the moral character of an action is de- 
termined by the intention ; if we intend to do 
wrong, although we may not actually do it, this 
intention is wicked. And when we really in¬ 
tend to do good, though we may not be able to 
carry our intention into effect, this intention is 
acceptable to God. Thus, God was pleased 
with David because he intended to build the 
temple, though he was not permitted to do it. 
Thus, also, the good wishes and benevolent de¬ 
sires of the poor may be as much charity in 
the sight of God, as, the alms of the rich. 

4. As a good intention is necessary to a vir¬ 
tuous action, if an action, which God has com¬ 
manded, be performed without a good inten¬ 
tion, the act is not virtuous in the sight of God. 
It is right to do justice to a poor widow. But 
the unjust judge, who neither feared God nor 


18 


QUESTIONS. 


regarded man, and who avenged the poor 
widow because she troubled him, did not per¬ 
form a virtuous action. His only intention 
was, to get rid of trouble. Thus, a child may 
do what its parents command, but do it in a 
bad temper. Though he may perform the 
action, yet he is not an obedient child, unless 
he perform it from good will, and with love to 
his parents. 

And, finally, every person must have ob¬ 
served that our intentions are very much in¬ 
fluenced by our previous feelings. Any one 
who indulges himself in envious or revengeful 
or malicious feelings, is much more likely to 
do envious or revengeful or malicious actions, 
than one who never indulges in such thoughts. 
Hence we see, that such feelings, as they lead 
us to do wrong actions, must, in themselves, 
be wrong. This is what our blessed Saviour 
means, when he tells us, that out of the heart 
proceeds all manner of evil. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Do brutes and men both act? 

2. What is the great difference between brutes and 
men? 

8. Can we influence men, in any way different fr 
that in which we influence brutes? 

4. Can you illustrate this by an example? 

5. What is the best way of influencing men? 


OF CONSCIENCE. 


19 


6. If men will not be influenced by knowing that an 
action is right or wrong, what are they like ? 

7. Do young persons ever act thus ? 

8. Is it honorable or disgraceful to act thus? 

9. If a person injure us by accident, ought we to feel 
as if he had done wrong? If not, why? Give an example. 

10. If a person intending to do us a kindness injure 
us, ought we to feel grateful or displeased? And why? 
Give an example. 

11. Give an example of an action with a bad intention. 

12. Give an example of a wrong action done thought¬ 
lessly. 

13. Do you ever do such actions ? 

14. Give an example of something wrong, when no 
action is really done. 

15. Give an example of a right action, without any 
good intention. 

16. Show how people make themselves wicked, by 
indulging in wicked thoughts. 

— » — 

CHAPTER II. 

OF CONSCIENCE. 

SECTION I. 

WHAT WE MEAN BY CONSCIENCE; AND HOW CON¬ 
SCIENCE ADMONISHES US. 

Whenever we do any thing, there must al¬ 
ways be something with which we do it. Thus, 
if we walk, we must have legs to walk with. 
If we see, we must have e} T es to see with. If 
we hear, we must have ears to hear with; and 
so of a thousand cases. 



20 


HOW CONSCIENCE 


This is equally true of our internal or men¬ 
tal actions. Thus, if we either think, or feel, 
we must have a mind to think or to feel with. 
If we remember, we must have a memory to 
remember with. 

Now, everyone knows that he has the power 
of observing the difference between right and 
wrong in the actions of men; and that he also 
is subject to peculiar feelings, in consequence 
of the existence of such qualities in his own ac¬ 
tions. We give the name conscience to that 
faculty which man has, but which brutes have 
not, by which we make this distinction, and 
suffer or enjoy these feelings. 

If now we will observe, we shall see that 
this feeling of right and of wrong belongs to 
our actions, whether they respect either God 
or man. If a boy tell a lie, though no one 
know it, or swear, though no one hear him, or 
break the holy Sabbath, though no one can see 
him, he feels guilty of a sin against God, 
and he justly fears that God will punish him. 
If he steal his neighbor’s propertj^, or cheat 
his playmates, or strike or abuse them, he feels 
guilty of injuring them, is ashamed to look 
them in the face, and is conscious that he de¬ 
serves to be punished for his conduct.* 

* It may be added, that we are conscious of some of 
these feelings when we abuse brute animals 


ADMONISHES US. 


21 


And hence we sa3 r , that conscience is that 
faculty of the mind, by which we distinguish 
between right and wrong in Our actions, 
whether they have respect to our fellow men, 
or to God. And, as we form the same judg¬ 
ment respecting the actions of other men, as 
we do respecting our own, we say, that con¬ 
science is the faculty by which we distinguish 
between right and wrong in moral action. It 
is by the same faculty that we feel a sort of 
impulsion to do what we know to be right, and 
a sort of monition not to do what we know to 
be wrong; and also, that we in the one case 
feel pleasure, and in the other case feel pain. 

Let us now reflect for a moment upon our 
feelings respecting right and wrong, that we 
may observe in what manner conscience ad¬ 
monishes us. 

1. Suppose we are considering an action, 
in order to decide whether or not we shall do 
it. Let us take a case. Suppose a child were 
so wicked as to be angry with his father, and 
was considering whether he should strike him. 
He would probably think, first of all, that his 
father was stronger than he, and would punish 
him for it. This would show that it was un¬ 
wise , for he would lose more than he Tvould 
gain. But suppose his father was sick in bed, 
and so weak that he could not punish his child 


22 


HOW CONSCIENCE 


for doing wrong. If the child reflected for a 
moment, he would feel that it was wrong to 
strike his parent, and that it made no differ¬ 
ence whether his father could punish him or 
not. And if a child saw another child strike a 
sick father, instead of doing him all the good 
he could, he would say that the child had done 
a very wicked thing, and that he ought to he 
punished for it. And if the child, in attempt¬ 
ing to strike his father, hurt himself badly, 
though every one would be sorry for him, yet 
they would all say that it served him right, and 
that he deserved it. 

Again, suppose a child to feel that it was 
wrong to strike his father ; he would also feel 
something which seemed to tell him not to do 
it. If he were angry , there wo\dd be two kinds 
of feelings within him. His angry feelings 
would urge him to do it, and his conscience 
would say, you ought not to do it. And he 
would be a bad or a good boy, just as he 
obeyed his angry passions, or as he obeyed 
his conscience. Or, to take another case. 
Suppose a boy had received some money which 
was given to him for the purpose of buying 
play-things for himself. As he was going to 
the toy-shop, he met a poor woman, whose 
children were starving for want of something 
to eat. His love of play would urge him to 


ADMONISHES US. 


23 


buy the play-things. But his conscience would 
urge him to relieve the poor starving children. 

A selfish boy would yield to his love of toys, 
and leav4 the children to starve. A good boy 
would yield to his conscience, and deny him¬ 
self, and give the money to the poor. 

We may also learn how conscience admon¬ 
ishes us, by observing how we feel after an ac¬ 
tion has been performed. Thus, take the last 
case. If a boy had been benevolent, he would 
feel happy, he would approve of what he had 
done. And, if he had seen such an action 
done by another, he would love him for it, and 
desire to see him rewarded. Thus, if the be¬ 
nevolent boy, afterwards, in passing along the 
street, had found twice as much money as he 
gave away to the poor children, every one would 
be glad of it, and say that he deserved to be 
rewarded. 

On the contrary, if a boy, instead of being 
kind to these children, had left them to perish, 
or more especially, if he had called them names, 
or had struck them ; when he went away and 
thought upon his conduct, he would feel 
ashamed, sorry, and very unhappy, and be 
afraid that some misfortune would befall him. a 
A nd if we should see any one act so wickedly, 
we should feel a dislike to him, we should not 
wish to associate with him, and we should say 
that he deserved to be punished. 


24 


QUESTIONS. 


This is one great reason why persons who 
have done wrong are so fearful and cowardly; 
and why those who have done well are so much 
bolder. He who has done wrong knows that 
he deserves to be punished; and hence he is 
afraid that every body is going to punish him. 
He who has done well knows that he deserves 
to be rewarded, and hence he is afraid of no one. 

And this is one reason why those who have 
done wrong are so commonly found out. He 
who has done wrong is afraid and ashamed ; he 
shows it in his countenance and in his actions ; 
and the more he tries to conceal it, the more 
clearly he discovers it. Thus the Bible tells 
us that the wicked is snared in the work of his 
own hands; and though hand join in hand, the 
wicked shall not go unpunished. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. It is said that if we do anything, we must have 
something to do it with. Give examples of this. 

2. How do you know that you have a conscience? 

3. When you disobey your parents, how do you feel? 

4. When you sin against God, how do you feel? 

5. What is it that produces these feelings ? 

6. When you do well and obey God, how do youfeel? 

7. What is it produces these feelings ? 

8. Have brutes any such feelings ? Why ? 

9. When you have been thinking whether or not you 
should do some particular wrong act, have you never 
felt something telling you you ought not? What was 
it that forbade you? 


OF CONSCIENCE. 


25 


10. When you have been thinking about doing a 
good action, have you not felt something urging you to 
do it? What was it that urged you to do it? 

11. Do you not feel displeased with persons who lie, 
and steal, and act cruelly ? What makes you fee4 thus? 

12. After a boy has done wickedly, does he feel as 
happy when he comes home, as when he has behaved 
well? Give an example. 

13. Why is wicked conduct so easily found out? 

14. Why are people so afraid when they have done 
wrong? 

15. Why are good people so often happy, when 
they come to die ? 

16. Why are bad people so often miserable, when 
they come to die ? 

SECTON JL 

OF THE MANNER IN WHICH WE MAY IMPROVE OR 
INJURE OUR CONSCIENCE. 

Every one must have observed, that all our 
faculties are capable of being improved or in¬ 
jured. Some persons of the same age are strong¬ 
er than others. One man is strong in his arms, 
and another is strong in his legs. And so of 
our internal faculties. One man has a power¬ 
ful, and another a weak memory. One has a 
facility in writing, and another writes with dif¬ 
ficulty. And so of a vast variety of cases. 

Now if we look at these, instances again, we 
shall find this to be the general fact respecting 
them. Those faculties are the strongest which 


26 IMPROVEMENT AND ABUSE 

are used the most. If one man be stronger than 
another, we shall find that he uses his strength 
more, or that he works more than the other. 
He whose occupations require the use of his 
arms, becomes strong in his arms; while he 
who walks or runs much, becomes strong in his 
legs. He who uses his memory habitually, re¬ 
members easily, that is, acquires a strong mem¬ 
ory ; while he who rarely tries to recollect what 
lie hears or reads, very soon has a weak mem¬ 
ory. And thus men have come to this general 
conclusion, that all our faculties are strength¬ 
ened by use, and weakened by disuse. 

This rule applies to conscience in several 
particulars. 

1. The more frequently we use our conscience 
in judging between actions as right or wrong, 
the more easily shall we learn to judge correctly 
concerning them. He who, before ever}^ ac¬ 
tion, will deliberately ask himself, is this right 
or wrong, will seldom mistake what is his 
duty. And children may do this, as well as 
grown persons. 

2. Our conscience is also improved in this 
respect, by reflecting upon virtuous actions, 
and thinking upon virtuous characters. The 
more we do this, the easier do we learn to dis¬ 
tinguish and to avoid everything that is wrong. 
It is for this reason that we should reflect much 


OF CONSCIENCE. 


27 


on the perfect character of our blessed Saviour, 
if we wish to improve our consciences, and 
make progress in virtue. So young persons 
should reflect upon the characters of Samuel, 
Joseph, Daniel, as they are recorded in the Bi¬ 
ble, and of General Washington and other good 
men who have lived in later times. And of 
course, on the contrary, we shall weaken our 
power of making moral distinctions : — 

1. If we neglect to inquire into the moral 
character of our actions. If children or men 
go on doing right or wrong, just as it happens, 
without ever inquiring about it, they will at 
last care but little whether they do the one or 
the other; and in many cases will hardly be 
able to distinguish between them. Every one 
knows that children who are taught by their 
parents to reflect upon their actions, and dis¬ 
tinguish between right and wrong, know much 
better how they ought to act , than those whose 
parents never give them any instruction on 
the subject. 

2. And again, we injure our power of judg¬ 
ing correctly of moral actions, if we allow our¬ 
selves to witness, or to hear of, wickedness ; or, 
if we are in the habit of letting wicked 
thoughts dwell in our minds. If a boy, for the 
first time, hear another swear, he will feel it to 
be wrong. But if he associate much with him, 


28 


IMPROVEMENT AND ABUSE 


lie will soon care nothing about it, and very 
soon will begin to swear himself. The same is 
the case with lying, cruelty, bad language, and 
any other wickedness. This shows us, how 
careful we should be to avoid all bad company, 
and never to mingle with those who persist in 
doing wrong. 

I have mentioned above, that we could all 
observe in the feeling of conscience, a sort of 
command, urging us to do what is right. Now 
this command becomes stronger or weaker, 
just in proportion as we use it. For instance, 
he who is careful always to do what his con¬ 
science commands, finds the power of tempta¬ 
tion over him to b^ weaker. He who strives 
always to be just, and never to defraud any 
one of the least thing, either in play, or in 
earnest, will find a very strong opposition in 
his mind, to doing any injustice ; while he, who, 
only occasionally, allows himself to lie or cheat, 
will find that his opposition to lying and dis¬ 
honest} 7 is gradually growing weaker, and it is 
well, if he do not, in the end, become a con¬ 
firmed thief and liar. 

And it is moreover to be remarked, that both 
of these last rules have an effect upon each 
other. The more we are in the habit of reflect¬ 
ing upon ’the right and the wrong of our 
actions, the stronger will be our inclination to 


OF CONSCIENCE. 


29 


do right; and the more scrupulously we do 
right, the more easily shall we be able to dis¬ 
tinguish between right and wrong. 

Once more. I have alluded to the fact that 
conscience is a source of pleasure and of pain. 
It is so, in a greater or less degree, in propor¬ 
tion as we use it. 

The oftener we do good actions, the greater 
happiness we receive from doing them. Do 
you not observe how happy, kind and benevo¬ 
lent persons always are ? Do you not observe, 
that persons, who very seldom do a good 
action, do it almost without pleasure; while 
really benevolent and kind people seem to de¬ 
rive constant happiness from making others 
happy? And, if there is so much happiness 
to be derived from doing good, we ought to be 
grateful that God has placed us in a world, in 
which there is so much good to be done, and in 
which every one, poor as well as rich, young as 
well as old, may enjoy this happiness, almost 
as much as he pleases. - 

And, on the contrary, the oftener men dis¬ 
obey their consciences, the less pain do they 
suffer from doing wrong. When boys first lie, 
or use bad words, they feel guilty, and very 
unhappy ; but if they are so wicked as to form 
the habit of doing thus, they soon do it with¬ 
out any pain, and sometimes even become 


30 


IMPROVEMENT AND ABUSE 


proud of it. This is the case with stealing, or 
any other wickedness. 

At first view, this might seem to be a bene¬ 
fit conferred on a wicked person, because he 
thus can do wrong, without so much suffering. 
But if we consider it a little more attentively, 
we shall see that it is exactly the reverse. For, 
when a person is afraid to do wrong, and suf¬ 
fers, in his conscience, in consequence of it, he 
will do it rarely and secretly; but when he 
ceases to be thus pained, he becomes bold, and 
does it openly, and soon meets with the pun¬ 
ishment which he deserves. And besides, it is 
very merciful in God thus to admonish us by 
our conscience, wheh we do wrong. And when 
we cease to be thus admonished, it is a proof 
that he has become more and more angry with 
us, and is letting us go on to our destruction 
without any more warning. And besides, this 
stupidity of conscience will last but for a very 
short time. Conscience frequently awakens in 
sickness, or on a death-bed. It will assume an 
infinitely greater power in eternity than it 
ever does ori earth. And then, if we have lived 
and died wickedly, it will be a source of tor¬ 
ment to us forever. 

From what we have said, one or two things 
are plain. 

1. The more frequently we do right, the 


OF CONSCIENCE. 


31 


easier will it be to do right; and the greater 
pleasure will the doing of right give us. The 
oftener we resist temptation, the easier can 
we resist, not only this temptation, but every 
Other. And thus, at every step of our prog¬ 
ress in virtue, we shall be prepared to be more 
and more virtuous; and our characters will 
become fixed on a surer foundation. 

2. And, on the contrary, the oftener we do 
wrong, the more difficult it is to resist tempta¬ 
tion, the more readily do we fall into sin, and 
with the less remorse do we violate all the 
monitions of conscience. Hence, the further 
we go on in sin, the more difficult it is to 
return to virtue, and the less is the hope of 
our recovery. 

And hence we should learn how great is the 
importance of resisting every temptation, and 
of doing right resolutely, under all possible 
circumstances. And, moreover, we learn that 
if we have formed any bad habit, the present is 
the very best time to break off from it. We 
cannot delay for a moment without making the 
case worse ; both by increasing the actual dif¬ 
ficulty, and by diminishing our strength to sur¬ 
mount it. And if this be the case with our sins 
against man, by how much more does it hold 
in respect to our sins against God. 

The following illustration is so peculiarly 


32 


THE ALARM WATCH. 


appropriate, that I with great pleasure insert 
it. It is from the Juvenile Miscellany. 

THE ALARM WATCH. 

A lady, who found it difficult to awake so 
early as she wished in the morning, purchased 
an alarm watch. These watches are so con¬ 
trived as to strike with a very loud, whirring 
noise, at any hour the owner pleases to set them. 

The lady placed the watch at the head of the 
bed, and, at the appointed time, she found 
herself effectually roused by the long rattling 
sound. She immediately obeyed the summons, 
and felt the better adl the day for her early ris¬ 
ing. This continued for several weeks. The 
alarm watch faithfully performed its office, and 
was distinctly heard , so long as it was promptly 
obeyed. But, after a time, the lady grew tired 
of early rising ; and, when she was awakened 
by the noisy monitor, she merely turned herself 
and slept again. In a few days the watch ceased 
to arouse her from slumber. It spoke just as 
loudly as ever, but she did not hear it, because 
she had acquired the habit of disobeying it. 
Finding that she might just as well be without 
an alarm watch, she formed the wise resolution, 
that, if she ever heard the sound again, she 
would jump up instantly, and that she would 


QUESTIONS. 


33 


never more allow herself to disobey the friendly 
warning. 

Just so it is with conscience. If we obey its 
dictates, even to the most trifling particulars, 
we always hear its voice, clear and strong. 
But, if we allow ourselves to do what we fear 
may not be quite right, we shall grow more and 
more sleepy, until the voice of conscience has 
no longer any power to awaken us. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. It is said, that every faculty of body or of mind is 
improved by use. Give examples of this. 

2. It is said, that every faculty of body or of mind 
is weakened by disuse. Give an example. 

3. What is the difference between the result of in¬ 
dustry and of idleness ? Can you give an example in 
both body and mind? 

4. If such be the law of God, what did he mean to 
teach us ? 

5. What two benefits shall we receive from reflect¬ 
ing on the right or the wrong of our actions ? 

6. What benefit shall we receive from associating 
with the good and virtuous ? 

7. What two injuries do we suffer from acting with¬ 
out moral reflection ? 

8. What are the consequences of associating with 
the wicked ? Give an example. 

9. Suppose a person disobey his conscience, what 
are the results ? Give an example. 

10. Why can good people, that is, those who act 
well, judge better than others of moral subjects? 
Whose advice, then, should we always follow? 


34 


RULES FOR 


11. If men wish to be happy, how should they act? 

12. If a person do wrong without feeling the pains 
of conscience, is it a good or a bad sign? 

13. What benefit do we receive from the habit of 
acting right? 

14. What injury from the habit of acting wrong? 
Give examples of both. 

15. When should a person break off from doing 
wrong; and begin to act right? Give an example. * 

SECTION III. 

RULES FOB OUR MORAL CONDUCT. 

* 

Eules to be observed before you resolve to 
do any action. 

1. Always ask yourself, first of all, is 
this action right? To enable you to answer 
this inquiry, God gave you a conscience, and 
the Holy Bible. If you do not use these means 
for ascertaining your duty, you are very wicked, 
and God will hold you guilty. And always 
ask this question before you begin; for after 
you have begun, or after you are very much set 
upon doing anything, it will probably be too 
late. 

2. Kemember what we have said about per¬ 
sons abusing their conscience by not obeying it. 
You have frequently done this, and of course 
your conscience is not as correct a guide as it 
ought to be. Hence, in many cases, you may 
only doubt. Now, when you doubt whether 


MORAL CONDUCT. 


35 


any action is right, you ought never to do it, 
unless you also as much doubt whether you 
are at liberty to leave it undone. 

3. Make it a settled rule, always to do what 
your conscience directs, and to leave undone 
what it forbids. No matter whether it be in 
action, or word, or thought, in public or in pri¬ 
vate, no matter how much you may suffer in 
consequence of it, always do what you believe 
to be right. There can no evil happen to you 
so great as to do wrong; and you can gain no 
good so great as that which arises from doing 
right. No matter who is for you, or who 
against you ; always obey God in preference to 
everything else. 

Rules after an action has been performed. 

1. Be in the habit of reflecting upon your 
actions, and of deciding carefully whether they 
were right or wrong. This is called self-ex¬ 
amination. 

Do this deliberately. It should be done alone 
and in retirement. If you do not take time 
specially for it, you will never do it at all. 

Do it impartially. Try to come to a correct 
conclusion. Put other persons in your place, 
and suppose them to act as you have acted, 
and then ask yourself what judgment you 
would form concerning them. Place before 
you the law of God, and the example of Jesus 


36 


RULES FOR 


Christ, and see how your actions correspond 
with theirs. It is very useful for young per¬ 
sons to converse on these subjects with their 
parents and older friends, and to ask their in¬ 
struction and direction respecting actions of 
which they themselves are unable to form a 
decided opinion. 

Suppose now you have examined yourself, 
and have come to a decision respecting your 
actions: — 

1. If you have done right, be thankful to 
God, who has enabled you to do so, and let the 
peace which you enjoy lead you to resolve more 
firmly in favor of virtue. 

2. If your actions have been mixed, that is, 
if some of your motives have been good, and 
some of them bad; try to ascertain how you 
came to blend them together, and avoid in fu¬ 
ture the causes which led you into error. 

3. If, upon reflection, you find that your 
actions have been wrong : — 

1. Reflect upon the action till you are sen¬ 
sible of its guilt. 

2. Be willing to suffer the pains of conscience. 
Do not try to forget the subject by doing some¬ 
thing else, but be willing to be pained, that you 
may the more readily avoid doing wrong in 
future. 

3. Do not forget the subject, until you have 


MORAL CONDUCT. 


37 


come to a resolution, founded on the moral 
wrong of the action, never to do so any more. 

4. If you can repair the injury you have 
done, repair it immediately. If you have told 
a lie, go immediately and confess it. If you 
have taken what did not belong to you, go and 
restore it. And if restitution be out of your 
power, go at least and acknowledge your fault. 

5. As every wrong action is a sin against 
God, seek in humble repentance his pardon, 
through the mediation of his Son Jesus Christ. 

6. Observe the courses of thinking or of 
acting which were the causes of your offending, 
and be specially careful to guard against them 
in future. 

7. Do all this, in humble dependence upon 
that merciful and everywhere present Being, 
who is always ready to grant us all the assist¬ 
ance necessary to the keeping of his command¬ 
ments, and who will never leave us nor forsake 
us, if we humbly put our trust in him. 

From what has been said, we must be con¬ 
vinced of the solemn responsibility which rests 
upon every human being, whether young or 
old. He is in the possession of a faculty, 
which admonishes him of his dutj^ to God and 
to man. It is an everywhere present faculty ; 
we always hear its monitions when we wish to 
hear them, and it frequently speaks, when we 


38 


QUESTIONS. 


desire it to be silent. Hence it is, that if we 
do wrong, we are justly held by ouf Creator to 
be inexcusable. And all this is still more 
strongly enforced by the fact, that this con¬ 
science, endowed with a tenfold energy, will 
ever abide with us, and will be a source of 
pleasure or pain to us throughout eternity. 
And, as young persons have a conscience, as 
well as those that are older, they are just as 
truly bound to obey it; and God will as surely 
punish them if they disobey it. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the first question to be asked before we 
begin to do anything? Give an example. Do you 
act thus? 

2. When we doubt whether an action is right, what 
ought we to do ? Give an example. 

3. Suppose we believe any action to be wrong, what 
ought to induce us to do it ? 

4. Suppose we believe anything to be our duty, 
what ought to prevent us from doing it? Give an ex¬ 
ample. 

5. Do you ever examine yourself, to know whether 
your actions are right or wrong ? 

6. Do you really try to know how to act so as to 
please God? 

7. When young persons do not know their duty, how 
should they try to learn it? Give an example. 

8. Suppose you had given a poor person money, 
partly from compassion and partly from vanity, what 
should you try to do next time? 


OF HABIT. 


39 


9. Suppose a person has told a falsehood, what should 
he do, if he mean to do right? 

10. What excuse can we make, if we do wrong, since 
we have a conscience to admonish us? Why? 

11. Can a man ever get rid of his conscience after 
death ? 

12. Will our conscience give us pleasure or pain in 
eternity? 

13. How must we live, if we wish our conscience to 
give us pleasure after we die ? 


CHAPTER III. 

IS A MAN SURE THAT HE DOES RIGHT WHEN HIS 
, CONSCIENCE DOES NOT REPROVE HIM? 

We frequently observe that some men are 
not reproved by their consciences for doing 
things, for which others feel very guilty. Thus, 
some persons swear, and say it is no harm, 
while others would feel very guilty if they did so. 
Now, how is this to be accounted for ; and how 
does this affect their real guilt in the sight of 
God? 

This is to be accounted for on the princi¬ 
ples which we have before stated. We have 
said that conscience is injured by disobeying 
its dictates. If a boy swear, and his conscience 
reprove him, and he do not obey it, it will re¬ 
prove him less next time, and less still the next 
time, until it at last ceases to reprove him al- 


40 


OF HABIT. 


together. But this does not make the thing 
any the less wrong than it was at first. Sup¬ 
pose a man look at the sun and it injures his 
eyes ; he looks again, and it injures them more ; 
and at last he becomes entirely blind, so that 
he cannot see it at all. This would not prove 
that the sun did not shine. 

And hence we see, that since we are all sin¬ 
ners, we may do many things, which we do not 
perceive to be wrong, that really are very 
wrong in the sight of God. A wicked child 
may not feel it to be wrong to disobey its par¬ 
ents, but this does not render it the less wicked. 
We generally do not feel guilty for diso¬ 
beying God, and forgetting all his goodness, 
but this does not render it the less sinful. 

And thus, since this very stupidity of con¬ 
science is a man’s own fault, he is not the less 
to blame on account of it. He will be as 
justly punished for the last sin, for which his 
conscience did not reprove him, as for the 
first, for which it reproved him ever so se¬ 
verely. 

And here it may be proper to say a few 
words respecting habit. 

When a man does a thing very often, he 
does it very easily, and does it without think¬ 
ing, and, at last, it seems as though he could 
not help doing it. You see how soon people 


OF HABIT. 


41 


acquire the habit of playing on musical instru¬ 
ments, of using certain words, etc. 

This is the case with moral action. A man 
by doing good actions, acquires the habit of 
doing them, so that he does them of course; 
and a man in the same manner acquires the 
habit of doing bad actions, so that he does 
them without reflection. 

Now, the question is this. Does an action 
become less wrong, because we have acquired 
the habit of doing it? 

I think not. Because, if God have forbidden 
it, our having acquired the habit of doing it 
does not alter his command. God has said, 
thou shalt not steal, and he will not alter his 
command. If it be displeasing to him for us 
to steal, how much more must he be displeased 
with us for acquiring the habit of stealing. 
If a person struck you, and his conscience re¬ 
proved him, you would say that he ought to be 
sorry for it, and never to do it again. You 
would certainly think it no excuse for him to 
strike you every time he saw you, until his 
conscience did not reprove him at all. You 
would say, it was wrong to strike me once, 
how much more to acquire the habit of strik¬ 
ing me every time you saw me. 

If this be so, how wicked must it be for 
people to form those bad habits, which many 


42 


QUESTIONS, 


fall into; and to do wicked actions, without 
any thought or reflection. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. If you compare your actions with the law of God, 
would you not find that you do many things which he 
has forbidden, but which you do not feel to be wrong? 
Give some examples. 

2. Will God call you to account for these actions, or 
not? 

3. Will such actions be more excusable than any 
others? 

4. Suppose a boy should lie, so that he did not care 
whether he told the truth or not, would this be any ex¬ 
cuse for him? Why? 

5. Suppose a boy swore once, and his conscience re¬ 
proved him, and another swore so much that he did not 
know when he did it, which would be the most guilty ? 
Why? 

6. Are persons generally better or worse than they 
suppose themselves to be ? Why? 

7. What does this section teach us respecting the 
importance of forming habits ? 

—♦— 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF HAPPINESS. 

Ouk Creator has formed us with various de¬ 
sires for the different objects around us. The 
gratification of these desires is called happi¬ 
ness or pleasure. Thus, we are fond of par- 



OF HAPPINESS. 


43 


ticular kinds of food and drink, of music, of 
colors and scenery; these are called pleasures 
of sense. We are pleased with reading and 
knowledge, with poetry and eloquence; these 
are called pleasures of intellect. We are 
made happy by the society of our friends and 
relations; these are called social pleasures. 
And lastly, we derive happiness from doing 
right and from being virtuous; this is called 
moral pleasure. 

Now, inasmuch as our Creator has formed 
us capable of being made happy from all these 
sources, and has placed all these objects 
around us, it is evident that he meant us to 
enjoy them all, that is, to be made happy by 
them. Thus, he meant us to derive one sort 
of happiness from things that we see and hear 
and taste ; another, from things that we read 
or think about; another, from our friends and 
relations ; and another from doing right, and 
in all things obeying him. 

But it is always to be remarked, that while 
all these are sources of happiness, and are de¬ 
signed to be such by our Creator, they are 
manifestly designed to be such only within 
certain limits. Thus, though the love of food 
is designed to be a source of happiness, it is 
found that, if food be partaken of beyond a 
certain quantity, it produces disgust, sickness 


44 


OF HAPPINESS. 


or death. And not only so, but if taken in 
improper quantities, it also destroys our ca¬ 
pacity for intellectual and moral pleasure. 
If intellectual pleasures be pursued beyond a 
certain limit, the power of intellectual gratifi¬ 
cation is weakened, and if pursued to the ut¬ 
most, the result is derangement. And even 
moral pleasures, as, for instance, devotion, 
may, in our present state, be pursued so far as 
to injure the health, and produce despondency 
and distrust, instead of cheerful, active, and 
useful piety. 

Hence, while it is true that the gratification 
of our desires is human happiness, and that 
the Creator designed them to be gratified, it 
is also true, that human happiness consists in 
the gratification of these desires within such 
limits as be has prescribed. So soon as we 
transgress these limits, the result is not hap¬ 
piness, but misery. And hence the greatest 
happiness of which we are susceptible is to be 
found in subjecting ourselves to the moral, so¬ 
cial, intellectual and physical laws which he 
has ordained, that is, in obeying in all things 
the holy, wise, just and merciful will of Him 
who made us. As soon as we begin to pursue 
any gratification in a manner, or to an extent, 
at variance with the laws of our Creator, we 
always make ourselves miserable. The most 


OF HAPPINESS. 


45 


unhappy class of persons on earth are those 
who live for nothing else but amusement, and 
without any regard to the Creator^ laws. 
Hence, if persons wish to be happy, they 
ought to observe several rules. 

1. They ought to be temperate, that is, to 
use no food nor drink that does not do them 
good; and to partake of proper food and 
drink, only in such quantity as will be useful 
to them. When people eat so that it gives 
them pain or makes them sleepy, they may 
know that they have been intemperate. 

2. They ought to be industrious. Without 
labor we soon become weak and sickly ; and, 
also, Without labor, we can never enjoy much 
pleasure either from reading or knowledge. 
Indolence weakens the mind as much as it 
does the body. 

3. They ought to be studious. I do not 
mean that every one should employ all his 
time in study. This would be impossible. 
All I mean, is, that every one should regu¬ 
larly give some time, as much as his occupa¬ 
tions will allow, to reading and the cultivation 
of his mind. This will soon become a great 
source of pleasure, and a great means of use¬ 
fulness. It was by employing his leisure 
hours in this manner, that Franklin laid the 
foundation of his greatness, and raised him- 


46 


OF HAPPINESS. 


self from the rank of a poor printer’s hoy to 
that of an eminent philosopher and statesman. 

4. They should be good. That is, they 
should in everything strive to serve and obey 
God. This will give us the pleasure of grati¬ 
tude, in addition to that derived from the re¬ 
ception of our daily mercies; it will give us 
comfort in trouble, all the pleasure of delight¬ 
ful intercourse with our best Friend, our 
Father in heaven, and the hope of being for¬ 
ever happy when we die. Every one must 
allow, that really religious people, whether 
young or old, are much happier than any 
other persons. 

5. We should be benevolent; that is, we 
should seek to make others happy. This is 
one way of serving God. There is more 
pleasure in seeing others happy than in seek¬ 
ing to be happy ourselves. There is more 
pleasure in acquiring knowledge for the pur¬ 
pose of being useful, than acquiring it merely 
for the sake of our gratification. If young 
and old persons would spend half the money 
in making others happy, which they spend in 
dress and useless luxury, how much more real 
pleasure it would give them. 


QUESTIONS. 


47 


QUESTIONS. 

1. Give examples of the various kinds of human 
happiness. 

2. How do you know that God meant you to eat 
apples, or to look at a rainbow, or to act virtuously? 

3. How do you know that God did not intend you to 
eat the leaves of the apple tree, instead of the fruit? 

4. How do you know that God did not mean you to 
eat more than two or three apples, at one time? 

5. How do you know that he meant you to study, 
but not to study all night ? 

6. How may we know, by the effects upon ourselves, 
that we have transgressed any law of our Creator? 

7. How ought a person to spend a day if he wished 
to spend it happily? Go through the day and illustrate 
it. 

8. When you act thus, do you not find yourself most 
happy ? 

9. Which are the more desirable, the pleasures of 
sense or those of intellect? 

10. Which are more desirable, the pleasures of sense, 
or social pleasures? 

11. Which are-more desirable, the pleasures of sense, 
or moral pleasures ? Illustrate-all these. 

12. What sort of pleasures do brutes enjoy? 

13. Suppose a man derives all his pleasure^ from his 
appetites, that is, from eating and drinking, etc., what 
is he like? 


48 


CHAPTER V. 

THE IMPERFECTION OF CONSCIENCE, 

It lias already been stated that conscience, 
like all our other powers, is strengthened by 
use, and injured by abuse. We abuse our 
conscience whenever we do wrong. And, as 
it is universally allowed that all men do wrong, 
it is evident that the consciences of all men 
must be imperfect. 

But, although we have thus rendered our 
consciences imperfect, the law of God remains 
the same; that is, he commands the same 
duties, offers the same rewards, and threatens 
the same punishments. He does not alter his 
laws, because men will not obey them. If a 
parent should forbid a child to do something, 
and the child should stop his ears so that he 
did not hear, he ought to be punished for doing 
wrong just as much as if he had heard, because 
it was his own fault that he did not hear. 

And if men have become so sinful that 
they do not hear the voice of God when he 
speaks to them by conscience, and if they are 
going on thus thoughtlessly, sinning against 
him and exposing themselves to his condem- 


OF CONSCIENCE. 


49 


nation, our condition would be very miserable, 
if God did not give us some other light. Age 
after age men would become more and more 
sinful, and would all be without any hope of 
salvation. Now, that men are actually going 
on in this manner is, I think, evident from 
facts. I do not say that there is no moral 
virtue in man. This would not be true. I 
say that the law of God requires perfect 
obedience, in order to deserve any reward at 
his hands. And I say, not only that men do 
not render that obedience, but that they have 
disobeyed him s6 much, as not even to perceive, 
by the light of conscience, the very duties that 
he requires of them. 

1. There are many duties to his fellow-crea¬ 
tures and to God, which man, by his unassisted 
conscience, does not discover. This must be 
known to every young person who has read 
the accounts given by travellers of heathen 
nations; especially those given by Christian 
missionaries. 

2. It is also evident that where these duties 
are known, men, very frequently, if left to the 
light of nature, err in respect to the mode in 
which they are to be performed. Thus the 
heathen, who acknowledge that they ought to 
worship God, perform, as acts of worship, the 
most disgraceful and abominable rites. While 


50 


IMPERFECTION OF CONSCIENCE. 


they confess that they ought to love their 
parents and children, they, not unfreqnently, 
put them to death when they are aged or sick. 

3. Men universally admit that they do not 
live according to the light which they enjoy; 
that is, that they are not as good as they know 
how to be. This is confessed, both by the 
heathen, and also by those who live under the 
full influence of Christianity. Every one 
knows it to be the fact that men are disposed 
to violate their obligations to God for the sake 
of the most transient and trifling gratifica¬ 
tion. 

Now, if this be the fact, if we be thus dis¬ 
posed to violate the law of God, and if to 
every violation he has affixed a most solemn 
penalty, not only in this world, but also in the 
other, if he had given us no other mode of 
learning our duty than is afforded by the light 
of conscience, our condition would be exceed¬ 
ingly hopeless. 

Now, as we know God to be infinitely merci¬ 
ful, as well as infinitely just, it is surely not 
improbable that he would give us some addi¬ 
tional knowledge upon this subject. He has 
given abundant proofs that he loves to have 
his creatures do right; and also that he loves 
to see them happy. Both of these facts would 
lead us to expect some more explicit informa- 


NATURAL RELIGION. 


51 


tion respecting our duty than is given by our 
unassisted conscience. 

This additional information is communicated 
to us by natural and revealed religion. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Explain what would be the condition of men, if 
they possessed no other knowledge of duty than that 
derived from the light of unassisted conscience. 

2. It is said that men, without any other light than 
conscience, would be ignorant of many duties to God 
and to man. Can you give an example of this ? 

3. It is said that men, when they know that some 
duty is to be discharged, do not knowhow to discharge 
it acceptably to God. Give examples of this. 

4. Do you find men generally acting as well as they 
know how to act? How do you act yourself? 

5. If God should call you to account for all those 
actions of your life which you have performed con¬ 
trary to his will without thinking anything about it, 
what would be your condition ? 

6. If we are so ignorant and sinful, and God is both 
very kind and yery desirous that we should do right, 
what should we think it probable that he would do for 
us? 

—•— 

CHAPTER VI. 

OF THE NATURE AND THE DEFECTS OF NATU¬ 
RAL RELIGION. 

In order to illustrate the nature of natural 
religion, I will commence with the following 



NATURAL RELIGION. 


52 ‘ 

supposition. Suppose that any young person 
had the misfortune to be deaf and dumb, as 
some children are. Such a child we know 
could not hear a word that his parents said to 
him. Suppose that his parents were very wise, 
just, and kind persons, and that the child knew 
this perfectly well. Now suppose this child to 
observe that whenever he did some sort of ac¬ 
tions, as, for instance, was, angry, mischievous, 
or dishonest, his parents were displeased, and 
if he repeated the actions punished him; 
while, if he were kind, obliging and honest, 
his parents were always pleased and rewarded 
him. And suppose that he also found that 
his parents, by some means, always so con¬ 
trived that a good action should be followed 
by a great deal of happiness to the whole 
family ; and a bad action by unhappiness to 
the whole family. Now suppose all this were 
invariably to happen, such a child would as 
certainly know what its parents wished, that 
is, what were the laws of the family, as though 
he could hear, and they had informed him by 
language. 

Now this is precisely the case with what is 
called natural religion; by which we mean 
those notions of their duty to God and to each 
other which men might acquire without the 
Bible. 


NATURAL RELIGION. 


53 


God acts towards all men as I have sup¬ 
posed such a parent to act towards such a 
child. He has connected happiness with 
some actions, and misery with others, if w T e 
consider the actions only in respect to our¬ 
selves. Thus, he has made us feel the pain 
of conscience when we do some things, and 
the pleasure of conscience when we do other 
things. Besides, he has made some actions 
give us pain and distress, and others give us 
pleasure, in our bodies as well as in our minds. 
Every one knows that if he eats too much, it 
makes* him sick. Every one knows how 
miserable drunkenness makes a man. Every 
one knows that a liar is despised by every per¬ 
son. And still more, God has so arranged 
things in this world, that bad actions make 
every one else unhappy, and that, if bad ac¬ 
tions were universally practised, men could not 
live together. Consider for a moment how 
unhappy children make their parents, by dis¬ 
obedience, lying, using bad words, and quar¬ 
relling with each other. And ask yourselves, 
how could men live together, if they were all 
liars, and all drunkards, and all thieves. 

Now, since God has connected such bad 
consequences with all these actions, and with 
a multitude of others, it is as manifest that he 
wishes us to avoid them as though he had 


54 


NATURAL RELIGION. 


spoken from heaven, and told us so. And, 
since he has connected so many good con¬ 
sequences with the contrary actions, it is 
equally evident that he means us to do the 
contrary actions. Hence, men, by observing 
these consequences, can learn what God wishes 
them to do, and what he wishes them to avoid. 
And these rules, thus ascertained, form what 
are called the laws of natural religion. 

It is evident that much knowledge of our 
duty may be learned in this way. And from 
what we have already said, it is evident that 
for all this increased knowledge, man is, in an 
increased degree, accountable ; since his guilt 
in violating any command of God is always in 
proportion to the clearness with which that 
command has been made known to him. And 
still further, not onty does natural religion 
present the moral law with additional clearness, 
by showing us the consequences of our actions, 
it offers additional motives to the doing of our 
duty. And, as our tendency to do wrong or 
right is shown by the obstacles which we 
overcome in the course which we pursue, if we 
do wrong, in opposition to those additional 
motives, we are justly held additionally guilty 
by our Creator. 

While, however, there is so much light 
communicated by natural religion, it is, in our 


NATURAL RELIGION. 


55 


present state, defective, and insufficient to lead 
man to virtue and happiness. 

This may be clearly shown from facts. 

1. Mankind, wherever they have' lived 
without the Bible, have always been exceed¬ 
ingly vicious. 

2. Nor has this been owing to want of 
knowledge, for, the further they have advanced 
in knowledge, the more wicked have they 
become. 

3. None of the systems, of religion which 
men have derived from the light of nature, 
have had any perceptible effect* in rendering 
them better. 

But, specially, natural religion can give us 
no information respecting the truths most 
essential to the formation of a religious charac¬ 
ter, and to the possession of a firm hope of a 
blessed immortality. 

For instance, natural religion gites us no 
information respecting the existence and dura¬ 
tion of the future state;- it neither tells us 
whether we live after death, nor how long we 
live. 

It gives no information respecting the state 
upon which we enter after death.. It teaches 
us much respecting our sinfulness, but noth¬ 
ing respecting the way in which sin may be 
pardoned. And, specially, it tells us nothing 


56 


QUESTIONS. 


respecting the way of salvation by Jesus 
Christ. Hence, as all these are facts of the 
utmost possible importance for us to know, 
and as none of them either are revealed, or 
can be revealed by natural religion, it is evi¬ 
dent that, had we no other guide, we must be 
left in utter ignorance on the most important 
subjects, which we need, as immortal and 
moral beings, to know. It is to dissipate this 
darkness, and to give us all the knowledge on 
moral subjects that our present state demands, 
that God has given to us the Holy Scriptures. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. How may we know, without the Bible, what God 
wishes us to do, and what to avoid? 

2. How would you know, in this manner, that God 
did not mean men to get drunk, or to steal, or to fight? 

3. How would you know, in this manner, that God 
meant children to be kind to each other, and to obey 
their parents ? 

4. Is this mode of teaching found to be sufficient to 
make men good? Do you remember, anything on this 
subject from your reading? 

5. What was the moral character of the ancient 
Greeks and Bomans? 

6. What is the moral character of the heathen gen¬ 
erally ? 

7. How could we know anything about another 
world, except God had told us in the Bible? 

8. Can we learn anything except the commands of 
God, from natural religion ? Illustrate this. 


OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 


57 


9. Does natural religion give us any knowledge re¬ 
specting pardon, after we have broken the laws of God? 

10. If men have not the Bible, by what law will God 
judge them? 

CHAPTER VII. 

OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 

The Holy Scriptures are contained in the 
volumes of the Old and New Testaments. 
The main design of these is to reveal to man 
the will or law of God, and the way of salva¬ 
tion from sin, by the atonement of Jesus 
Christ. 

The Old Testament contains, 

1. An account of the creation of the world, 
of the creation and fall of man, with a brief 
history of our race, until the general deluge. 

2. An account of the separation of the 
family of Abraham, the commencement of a 
nation, and a history of this nation, from its 
beginning, until the return from the captivity 
in Babylon, a period of about fifteen hundred 
years. 

3. The system of laws, moral, civil, and 
ceremonial, which God enacted for the govern¬ 
ment of this people, and which he ordained 
principally for the sake of prefiguring the 
coming dispensation. 


58 


OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 


4. Various events in their history, dis¬ 
courses of their inspired teachers, prayers and 
hymns of pious men, predictions of future 
events, and, specially, full and minute proph¬ 
ecies of the coming Messiah, and of the na¬ 
ture, the glory, and the benefits of his reign. 
With these last the Old Testament is tinged 
throughout; and with these anticipations 
large portions of it are entirely occupied. 
The teaching of the Old Testament shows 
that no system of law, even under the most 
favorable circumstances, is adequate to the 
moral reformation of man. 

The design of the New Testament is, to 
make known the law of God with greater 
clearness than it was formerly revealed; and, 
specially, to teach men the way of salvation 
by the gospel of Jesus Christ. 

In pursuance of this design it contains. 

1. A narrative of the life and death, resur¬ 
rection and ascension, of Jesus of Nazareth ; 
a Being in whom the divine and human na¬ 
tures were mysteriously united ; who appeared 
on earth to teach us whatever was necessary 
to be known of our duties to God; and, by 
his obedience and sufferings, death, resurrec¬ 
tion, ascension and mediation, to provide for 
us a way of pardon and salvation. 

2. A brief narrative of the progress of the 


OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 


59 


Christian religion, for several years, after the 
ascension of Jesus of Nazareth. 

3. The epistolary instructions which his 
apostles, by divine inspiration, gave to the 
men of their own time. 

This whole volume, thus taken together, 
presents us with all the knowledge we could 
desire, respecting our duties to God, our fu¬ 
ture destiny, and the way of pardon and ac-' 
ceptance with our Father in heaven. And, 
hence, we believe the Old and New Testa¬ 
ments to contain all that God has ever re¬ 
vealed, or will reveal to us, respecting his will. 
What is contained here, and nothing else, 
is, therefore, binding upon the conscience. 
Everything else is the word of man. 

We see, then, the means which God has 
given, for the purpose of enabling us‘ to know 
our duty to him and to each other. 

1. He has given us conscience, by which 
we become sensible of our duty, and by which 
we are admonished to act in accordance 
with it. 

2. He has so constructed all the system of 
things around us, that we enjoy happiness 
whenever we do his will, and suffer pain 
whenever we violate it. Hence, if we will only 
observe the effects of an action upon ourselves, 


60 


OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 


and upon others, we may thus learn how he 
wishes us to act. 

3. When, by our own wickedness, our con¬ 
science became imperfect, and when we ceased 
to learn our duty by the light of nature, he 
gave to man a written law, in which he clearly 
communicated by language his will concern¬ 
ing us. 

4. When this was found entirely insufficient 
to restrain men from vice, or to restore them 
to virtue, in the fulness of time God sent 
forth his Son, to teach us our duty, to make 
an atonement for our sins, and to offer pardon 
and eternal life to every one who will repent 
and believe in the Lord Jesus Christ. 

If such be the fact, it is manifest that our 
accountability increases with every additional 
portion of moral light. And if he be inexcus¬ 
able who disobeys the will of God under any 
circumstances, how solemn must be the con¬ 
demnation of those who, under the clear light 
of the gospel, and in despite of the merciful 
provisions of the new dispensation, pursue a 
course of thoughtless disobedience to God, 
and live for this world, instead of living for 
another. 

Now, young persons frequently suppose that 
all this is intended for others, but not for 
them. But it is not so. Does not the con- 


QUESTIONS. 


61 


science of every young person admonish him ? 
Cannot every young person see the misery 
which is produced by wickedness, in himself 
and in others? Cannot every one, in this 
country, read the Bible; and has he not read 
there, of God’s anger against sin, and also 
of the way of salvation by Christ ? If this 
be so, every young person is as truly account¬ 
able to God for the knowledge which he has 
obtained as if he were ever so old. Every 
one of us, whether young or old, ought to 
repent of his sins, obey God, and believe on 
the Saviour. And, if the young do not un¬ 
derstand these things, they should apply to 
their teachers, their parents, or their minister 
for instruction. 


QUESTIONS. 

1. In what books of the Bible do we find the early 
history of the race of man ? 

2. In what books do we find the history of the Jews, 
from the departure out of Egypt, until the captivity ? 

3. In what books do we find the Mosaic law ? 

4. What is the difference between moral, civil, and 
ceremonial law ? 

5. What book is filled with the prayers and praises 
of pious men? 

6. What book contains the most distinct and minutfe 
prophecies of the mission, character, and life of Christ? 

7. What books in the New Testament contain the 
life of Christ? 


62 


QUESTIONS. 


8. What book contains the history of tne progress 
of Christianity, after his ascension? 

9. Explain the modes which God has given by which 
we may know our duty. 

10. Why are those, in this country, who disobey God, 
more wicked than those who disobey him among the 
heathen? 

11. Is a young person who disobeys God any more 
excusable than an old person? 


63 


< 


PART II. 


OF THE DUTIES OF MAN TO GOD AND HIS 
FELLOW-MAN. 

In the preceding pages we have endeavored 
to illustrate the nature of man’s moral con¬ 
stitution, and to show the sources from which 
his moral light is derived. We shall now 
attempt a brief exposition of human duty, so 
far as it can be learned either from natural 
religion or from Divine revelation. 

The Scriptures teach us that the whole of 
human duty may be summed up in the single 
word Love. 44 Thou shalt love the Lord thy 
God with all thy heart;” and 44 Thou shalt 
love thy neighbor as thyself.” 

Hence the duties of man are comprehended 
under two general divisions: 

1. Love to God, or piety. 

2. Love to man, or morality. 

Of these we shall now proceed to treat. 



64 


OF LOVE TO GOD, OR PIETY. 


CHAPTER I. 

OF OUE OBLIGATION TO LOVE GOD. 

Every one, as soon as he thinks upon the. 
subject, knows that he ought to love and obey 
God. But men, generally, have very indistinct 
notions respecting the meaning of these terms. 
While they confess that they ought to love and 
obey their Creator, they act in direct opposition 
to his will, and do not seem to think that they 
are violating any duty. It may be worth 
while, therefore, to attempt to illustrate, so far 
as we can, the nature of our obligations to 
God. 

1. I suppose that every well-instructed 
young person feels that he ought to love and 
obey his parents. And he feels this, because 
they are his parents , that is, although other 
persons may be equally wise and good, he feels 
under greater obligations to his parents than 
to any one else. Who has not been shocked 
to observe the manner in which wicked and 



LOVE TO GOD. 


65 


badly educated young persons speak of these, 
their best earthly friends ? Have you not ob¬ 
served that such young persons are commonly 
ill-bred, vicious and disagreeable associates ? 

2. But suppose that our parents were also 
the wisest, and most virtuous, and most 
benevolent persons that we had ever known. 
Our obligations to them would be certainly 
increased. In addition to our love of them 
because they were our parents, we should love 
them for their virtues. What would we think 
of a child who, though blessed with such parents, 
showed by his conduct that he cared nothing 
for them, never took their advice, nor associated 
with them any more than he could help, but 
was always seeking his companions among the 
most idle, vicious, and disgusting persons in 
the neighborhood ? 

3. But suppose, once more, that such a 
child was very sickly, or was blind and deaf, 
and that all these excellent virtues of his 
parents had uniformly been employed for his 
good. Suppose that, for several years, when 
he was so sick as to be very near to death, his 
mother had watched by his bed-side, relieved 
his pain, and saved him from the grave. Sup¬ 
pose that his father had carried him about in 
his arms, whenever he was able to go abroad, 
and when he was unable had always provided 


66 


LOYE TO GOD. 


him with companions, and everything to make 
him happy at home. And suppose, moreover, 
that such a parent, being rich, had built a 
splendid and beautiful house, precisely adapted 
to render this helpless child happy. What 
should we think of such a child, if, even in his 
blindness, he wished to escape from his parents, 
to go where they had forbidden him, and con¬ 
tinually to injure himself and others, in spite 
of all their care? What should we think of 
him, if he never manifested any gratitude for 
all this kindness, and habitually, not only 
grieved these parents, but showed, by all his 
conduct, that he loved the vilest persons better 
than them? Every one must acknowledge, 
that such a child was not only very foolish, but 
very wicked. 

And, on the contrary, suppose a child, under 
these circumstances, to cherish proper feelings 
towards his parents ; every one must see how 
he would conduct towards them. Inasmuch as 
they were his parents , he would honor, respect 
and obey them. As they were the most wise 
and virtuous persons he knew, he would take 
their advice and counsel in preference to those 
of any one else, and would prefer their society 
to any other. Aslthey had taken every possi¬ 
ble means to promote his happiness, he would 
be grateful to them, would do everything to 


LOYE TO GOD. 


67 


please them, and would a great deal rather 
please them than please himself or any of his 
acquaintances. Now, I think that every one, 
whether young or old, must see that this is the 
way in which such a child ought to conduct 
towards such parents. 

Let us now, in the second place, apply these 
remarks to our relations to God , and every one 
must see that we are under infinitely higher 
obligations to love and obey him, than we 
possibly can be to any or to all the other 
beings in existence. 

1. He is our Creator and Preserver. By him, 
we, with all the faculties which we possess, 
were first formed out of nothing, and by him 
we are every moment supported. Without his 
power, we could neither see nor hear, taste nor 
feel; we could neither think nor remember, be 
pleased nor displeased, love nor be loved. All 
that we have is his, and all that we are is pro¬ 
duced from nothingness by his simple will. 
Now, surely the Being whose we are, in so 
special a manner, is deserving of our reverence. 
He who sustains us every moment ought every 
moment to be present to our thoughts. 

2. But more than this, consider the attributes 
of God, and ask if we ought so constantly to 
think of him, how ought we to think of him. 
He is infinitely wise, faithful, just, holy and 


68 


LOYE TO GOD. 


merciful. If we are bound by our moral 
nature to love and reverence these attributes 
everywhere on earth ; if we are specially bound 
to reverence them in our parents, how much 
more are we bound to love and reverence them 
in our Father who is in heaven, and who pos¬ 
sesses them in a degree as far beyond anything 
that exists on earth as the Creator is superior 
to any one of his creatures. 

3. And still further: all these attributes of 
the Creator have, from the beginning, been 
exerted for our happiness. We are as ignorant 
of the future as a blind man can be of the 
objects around him; and yet God has pro¬ 
vided everything for us. We are as liable 
every moment to death as a person in the most 
dangerous illness; and yet God has kept us 
alive to the present hour. We have no power 
to create anything around us; and yet God 
has created this goodly world, and provided 
it for our special happiness. We are shortly 
to die ; and he has provided for those that love 
him, a world of happiness, vastly more glorious 
and excellent than anything that we can con¬ 
ceive of. When we were all sinners, and ex¬ 
posed to his just displeasure, he so loved the 
world, that he sent his well-beloved Son, that 
whosoever believeth on him should not perish, 
but have everlasting life. Now, surely all this 


LOVE TO GOD. 


69 


deserves our love and gratitude. And, if our 
love and gratitude should be in proportion to 
the character of the benefactor, and to that of 
the benefits conferred, then, surely, we should 
love our Father in heaven infinitely better than 
anything else ; in other words, we should love 
him with all our heart; that is, supremely. 

And suppose, thirdly, that we really cher¬ 
ished those feelings of reverence, and love, and 
gratitude to God which he deserves, how is it 
proper that we should discover them ? 

Manifestly, since everything around us is 
the work of God, and is designed to keep him 
constantly in our recollection, everything 
should put us in mind of him. 

1. If we thus thought of him, his attributes 
would perpetually fill us with wonder, admira¬ 
tion and love. As all this is done for us, every 
favor from his hand would excite us to grati¬ 
tude and adoration. Nor is this all. As all 
that is adorable in the Deity is infinitely supe¬ 
rior to any exhibition of goodness that we see 
on earth, and as he is infinitely more nearly 
related to us than any created beings are, not 
only would these feelings be constant, but they 
would also be infinitely more intense than 
those which we cherish to any and to all beings, 
beside. 

2. And again, suppose all this to be the case, 


70 


LOVE TO GOD. 


it is manifest that such a state of feeling would 
have a powerful effect upon our conduct. Lov¬ 
ing, thus, a just and merciful and holy being, 
we should love to act justly, and mercifully, 
and holily. And loving him thus intensely and 
gratefully, we should desire, above all things, 
that he should love us ; for this is the very na¬ 
ture of every affection. Hence we should in 
everything strive to act in such a manner as we 
knew would please him. Hence, we should 
strive, most of all, to know and do his will. 
And if we had these sentiments towards him, 
we should never prefer anything to him. To all 
the allurements of pleasure, or interest, or 
passion, it would always be more than a suf¬ 
ficient answer, how can I do this great wicked¬ 
ness and sin against God ? 

3. And hence, as our supreme desire would 
be to please God, we should employ our intel¬ 
lect in nothing so readily, cheerfully, and spon¬ 
taneously, as in learning his will, both as it is 
made known to us in his works, and in the 
Bible. We should delight to observe his deal¬ 
ings with men and with nations, that we might 
learn the rules by which he governs us. And 
we should specially study, with intense inter¬ 
est, his written word, that we might know his 
will concerning us here, as well as what he has 
prepared for us hereafter. And having once 


LOVE TO GOD. 


71 


known this will, the first and strongest impulse 
of our hearts would be to obey it; no matter 
what, or how many, or how strong impulses 
might exist to the contrary. 

4. And, again, if such were the case, as 
everything which God has made teaches his 
attributes, and so, of course, is intended to 
lead our thoughts to him, the strongest incite¬ 
ment to knowledge would be that thus we 
might know more of the works and character 
of him who made us, and made all things. 
And yet more, as this would be our strongest 
incitement to improve in knowledge, this would 
be the natural end to which all our knowledge 
would tend. The colors of the rainbow, the 
odor of the rose, the sublimity of the storm, 
the thunder of the cataract, would as directly 
and instantly awaken the emotion of religion, 
as they do the emotion of beauty or of sub¬ 
limity. Thus should we have the perpetual 
and delightful consciousness of the fact that 
in God we live and move and have our being. 

5. And, again, as God has condescended to 
reveal himself more intimately in his written 
word ; as there he has communicated to us 
more glorious knowledge of his character, and 
has been pleased to converse with us in our own 
language, and has, moreover, given us a divine 
example of the manner in which he would have 


72 


LOYE TO GOD. 


us live, and has informed us that he is pleased 
to have us converse with him by prayer, and 
meditation, and commune with him by the ut¬ 
terance of all the feelings of a devout spirit; 
it is manifest, that, with a proper and filial 
temper, these would be among the choicest of 
our privileges, and they would be as natural 
to us as the intercourse of intimate friends 
with each other, or as that of children with 
beloved and endeared parents. 

That such are the proper feelings which a 
creature, such as man, should cherish towards 
such a Creator as God, is, I think, too evident 
to need argument. I will not, in this place, go 
into a consideration of the question, how far 
we see these feelings exemplified in the charac¬ 
ter and actions of men. I presume it will be 
at once admitted that the world presents but 
little evidence of the universality of such 
moral dispositions. All ages and nations have 
united in the conviction that man is a sinner, 
and that his moral feelings towards God are 
very different from those which he is under the 
highest obligations to render to such a Creator. 

Suppose this to be the case, it is proper to 
inquire, lastly, what are the dispositions suita¬ 
ble for us to exercise towards God, after we 
have become sinners against him. 

1. It is manifest, that, although we have 


LOYE TO GOD. 


73 


changed, God has not changed. His attri¬ 
butes are the same, and are as lovely, and his 
conduct towards us has been as just and as 
good, as they were before. We are then under 
precisely the same obligations as before to love 
and obey him, and to strive after the same 
moral perfection, as if we had never trans¬ 
gressed. 

2. If God has been thus unchangeably just 
and holy and good, our sin against him must 
have been inexcusably wrong. This, then, it 
becomes us to acknowledge, and to justify him, 
• as well as, condemn ourselves. We ought, in 
sincere sorrow for all our past offences, to break 
off from everything that has displeased him, 
and devote ourselves, as was our duty at the 
beginning, to a life of sincere and filial and 
universal obedience. This is what the Bible 
means by repentance. 

3. And still more, if there be a way of par¬ 
don provided by our Father in heaven, a way 
in which alone he will receive us to favor, after 
we have sinned against him, it becomes us to 
seek, most earnestly and honestly, to know 
what that way is, and submit to the wise and 
merciful conditions which he has prescribed for 
our salvation. If we neglect this, we are 
guilty, not only of our past sins against God, 
but also of continuing in our present state of 


74 


LOVE TO GOD. 


sin, notwithstanding our Creator has provided 
a means of deliverance from it, and a way of 
pardon, full, free, and upon the most reasona¬ 
ble and merciful conditions that we can possi¬ 
bly conceive of. Of the wickedness of such a 
course of conduct, the Bible always speaks in 
the most decided terms. “ If I had not come 
and spoken to them, they had not had sin, but 
now they have no cloak for their sin.” “ This 
is the condemnation, that light has come into 
the world, and men have loved darkness 
rather than light because their deeds were 
evil.” 

From what has been said, it will be evident 
that our relations to God impose upon us the 
following obligations: 

1. To love him supremely, that is, better 
than all things else, and to love nothing in 
such a manner, or in such a degree, as shall 
interfere with our love to him. 

2. To obey him in all things implicitly, 
though in opposition to our own desires, pas¬ 
sions and wills ; and though all the other beings 
in the universe were opposed to us. 

3. To cherish, habitually, a contrite and 
penitent disposition, on account of our innu¬ 
merable past and present offences. 

4. To accept of the mercy which he has 
provided, on the terms which he has pre- 


QUESTIONS. 


75 


scribed. Or, in general, to live a pious, peni¬ 
tent and religious life. 

And lastly; as every action which we per¬ 
form must be, in some manner, either accord¬ 
ing to the will of God or contrary to it, our 
duties to man become also duties to God. That 
is to say, whatever we are under obligations to 
perform, from our relations to man, we are 
also under obligations to perform from our 
relations to God, because God requires it of 
us. Hence we see that a difference exists be¬ 
tween our duties to God simply , and our duties 
to man, which are also duties to God. The first are 
not capable of being enforced by human law. 
The others may be so enforced, and the violation 
of them justly punished. They are, however, 
punished by man, not because of their being 
displeasing to God, but because they violate 
the obligations under which man is placed to 
his fellow. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Do you ever feel as much your obligations to 
love and serve God, as you do your obligations to love 
and obey your parents? 

2. How would a wicked and disobedient child act 
towards kind and good parents ? 

3. How would a good and obedient child act towards 
good and kind parents ? 

4. Which is most truly our parent, God, or our father 
and mother ? 


QUESTIONS. 


76 

•**. 

5. Which is kindest and wisest and best to us, God, 
or our earthly parents ? 

6. Which are we under the greatest obligations to 
love, God, or our parents ? 

7. How do we act towards God; as affectionate and 
obedient children, or as ungrateful and disobedient 
children ? 

8. Mention some of the reasons for which we ought 
to love and obey God. 

9. How would a person act who really loved and 
served God? 

10. If we really love God, what should be our desire 
in all we do ? 

11. Does our being sinners excuse us from our obli¬ 
gations to love and obey God ? * 

12. If we are sinners, and are under the same obli- v 
gations to love him as before, are we not also under 
some other obligation? What is it? 

18. Under what obligations are we placed by the 
fact that God has given his Son to die for us ? 

14. Suppose we continue to live wickedly, shall we 
be any better off than we should have been if there had 
been no Saviour appointed? 

15. Shall we, on this account, be any worse off ? 
Why? 

16. What does the Bible represent to be the great 
difference, in guilt, between the heathen and those who 
have heard the gospel? 

17. Mention, in order, the duties which we owe to 
God. 

18. What is idolatry ? 

19. Can a person be an idolater who does not wor¬ 
ship an image or a picture? 

20. When we want to do anything very much, is this 


THE NATURE OF PRAYER, 


7.7 


a sufficient reason for doing it? Why? What ought 
to control our desires? 

21. Can we love God if we thoughtlessly, and with¬ 
out regret, sin against him? How should we feel when 
we have sinned against him? 

22. Can we love God, if we lie, disobey our parents, 
use bad wprds, or take his name in vain? 

23. Give an example of some act which is merely a 
duty to God, and another which is a duty to man, and 
is also required by God. 

24. Has man any right to enforce those duties which 
are simple duties to God? 


CHAPTER II. 

OF PRAYER. 

SECTION 1. 

THE NATURE OF PRAYER. 

As devout affections towards God are of 
the utmost importance to the formation of 
virtuous character, God has been pleased to 
appoint special means for the purpose of as¬ 
sisting us to cultivate them. These are, 
prayer and the observance of the sabbath. 
In the present chapter we shall treat of 
prayer. 

We shall consider, 1st, the nature; 2d, the 
obligation ; 3d, the utility of prayer. 

Prayer is the direct intercourse of our 



78 


THE NATURE OF PRAYER. 


spirits with the spiritual and unseen Creator. 
“ God is a Spirit, and those that worship him 
must worship him in spirit and in truth.” 

Just as a dutiful and affectionate child un¬ 
bosoms all his cares and sorrows and wants, 
and confesses all his errors, in the presence 
of wise and virtuous and beloved parents ; so 
every one of us is invited to draw near and 
commune with our Father in Heaven by 
prayer and supplication. 

This temper of mind required in prayer 
supposes a solemn conviction of the character 
and attributes of God, — a consciousness of 
the obligations which we are under to him, — 
an affecting view of our sinfulness and help¬ 
lessness, — sincere gratitude for all the favors 
which we have received from him, — a fixed 
resolution to keep all his commandments,— 
submission to his will, — confidence in his 
veracity, — importunate desires for spiritual 
blessings, and a soul at peace with all man¬ 
kind. It is not asserted that all these dispo¬ 
sitions are always to be in exercise at the 
same time, but only such of them as belong 
to the nature of our supplications; and that 
we should be conscious of nothing at variance 
with any of them. It is prayer offered in this 
spirit which God has promised to answer. 

Prayer may be either private, domestic, or 
soci.ah 


THE NATURE OF PRAYER. 


79 


1. Private prayer. As, in private prayer, 
our object is, to hold personal and direct 
communion with God, we are commanded, on 
such occasions, to enter into our closet, and 
shut the door, and pray to our Father in 
secret. The expression of our wants should 
be solemn, but unreserved and particular. 
As, moreover, this communion with God is 
intended to be the great means for resisting 
the constant pressure of things seen and tem¬ 
poral, it should be frequent and habitual. 
Thus says David, evening and morning and 
at noon will I call upon thee. 

2. Domestic prayer. As the relations of 
husband and wife, parent and child, brother 
and sister, are the most intimate and endear¬ 
ing of any which we sustain on earth; and 
as, in consequence of these relations, almost 
all the joys and sorrows which we sustain 
individually are shared in common with 
those who are thus connected with us, it is 
peculiarly proper that we should, together , 
spread our wants and necessities and thanks¬ 
givings before God. The moral effect of this 
institution upon both parents and children is 
also such as to render it obligatory upon 
every thoughtful parent. 

3. Social prayer. As members of the same 
community we are continually receiving social 


80 


QUESTIONS. 


blessings from our Creator. It is proper thafr 
as societies we should acknowledge them. 
Religion tends to unite men together by the 
effort to do good to each other. It is there¬ 
fore cultivated by meeting together as re¬ 
ligious societies. So important is this to the 
improvement of the moral cultivation of a 
community, that nowhere has any successful 
effort been made for the improvement of man 
without it. Surely nothing more need be 
said of the importance of social worship. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. For what reasons does God require us to pray? 

2. Tell what prayer is, in your own language. 

3. What is there, in our ordinary intercourse with 
others, which resembles prayer? 

4. What do you mean by an affecting view of our 
sinfulness ? 

5. What favors do we receive from God? Mention 
some of them. 

6. What do you mean by unshaken confidence in 
God’s veracity ? 

7. What do you mean by submission to the will of 
God? 

8. » What do you mean by a soul at peace with all 
mankind ? 

9. Where are we told that unless we forgive men 
their trespasses, neither will our Father in heaven for¬ 
give our trespasses ? 

10. Suppose that when we pray, we feel angry or 
revengeful against any one, will God answer our 
prayers ? 


THE DUTY OF PRAYER. 


81 


11. Explain, in vour own language, how we ought to 
feel when we pray to God. 

12. How ought young persons to behave when their 
parents pray in the family? 

13. Ought all parents to pray with their children? 

SECTION II. 

OF THE DUTY OF PRAYER 

This is evident from the relations in which 
we stand to God. 

1. We are utterly powerless, absolutely 
ignorant of the future, and essentially de¬ 
pendent upon God for our very existence, 
and, of course, for every blessing which ac¬ 
companies existence. What can be more 
proper than that we daily supplicate our 
Father in heaven for the blessings which we 
every moment need; and that we humbly 
and thankfully acknowledge the favors, 
which we, without any claim on our part, 
every moment receive ? 

2. But specially is this the case when we 
remember that we are sinners, that we have 
forfeited all claim to the favor, and deserve 
the displeasure of God; that we need his 
pardon for our daily offences, and the purify¬ 
ing influences of his Spirit to cleanse us from 
our sinful dispositions, and prepare us for a 
holy and happy immortality. 


82 


THE DUTY OF PRAYER. 


3. This habit of reliance upon God is neces¬ 
sary to our happiness in the present state. 

4. The tempers of mind which prayer sup¬ 
poses are essential to our progress in virtue. 

The duty of prayer is also abundantly 
taught in the Scriptures. 

1. It is frequently expressly commanded. 
This is evident from such passages as these: 
“ Pray without ceasing.” “ In everything 
giving thanks, for this is the will of God in 
Christ Jeslis concerning you.” “In all 
things, by prayer and supplication, let your 
requests be made known unto God.” “ I 
exhort that prayers and. supplications, inter¬ 
cessions and giving of thanks be made for all 
men; for this is good and acceptable in the 
sight of God our Saviour.” Our blessed 
Saviour spake a parable to this end, “ that 
men ought always to pray and never to 
faint.” 

2. God declares in the Scriptures that this 
is the condition on which he will bestow fa¬ 
vors upon men. “If any man lack wisdom, 
let him ask of God, who giveth to all men 
liberally and upbraideth not, and it shall be 
given him.” “ The effectual, fervent prayer 
of a righteous man availeth much.” “ Ask, 
and it shall be given you, seek and ye shall 
find, knock and it shall be opened. Or what 


THE DUTY OF PRAYER. 


83 


man is there of you, who, if bis son ask bread, 
will give him a stone, or if he ask a fish, will 
give him a serpent? If ye then, being evil, 
know how to give good gifts to your children, 
how much more shall your heavenly Father 
give good gifts to them that ask him.” 

3. The Scriptures declare that the habit of 
prayer distinguishes the righteous from the 
wicked. “ The wicked say, what .is the Al¬ 
mighty that we should serve him, or what 
profit shall we have if we call upon him?” 
“ The wicked through the pride of his counte¬ 
nance will not seek after God. God is not in 
all his thoughts.” On the contrary, those 
whom God approves are frequently desig¬ 
nated as “those that call upon,” and “ those 
that seek him.” 

4. The Bible abounds with examples of 
special answers to prayer under every variety 
of circumstances. Witness the prayer of 
Abraham for Sodom ; — the prayer of the Is¬ 
raelites when under bondage in Egypt; — the 
prayer of Moses for the Israelites in the wil¬ 
derness;— the prayer of Elijah for drought 
and for rain ; — the prayer of Nehemiah for 
the restoration of the Jews; — the prayer of 
Daniel for the same object, and for divine illu¬ 
mination respecting the purposes of God. 
What God has thus encouraged is not merely 


84 


QUESTIONS. 


a duty, it is a most inestimable and unspeak¬ 
able privilege. In a word, what can be so 
rich a privilege as the opportunity afforded to 
blind, sinful, helpless man, to go, with all his 
wants, and cares, and sorrows, to an infinitely 
wise, benevolent and compassionate Creator; 
with the assurance that he that cometh shall 
in no wise be cast out; that whatever he suit¬ 
ably asks for, he shall, if it be best for him, 
receive; and that G-od will even reward such 
an one for the very act of thus coming to him? 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Explain, in your own language, why we ought to 
pray to God, on account of our condition as creatures,* 

2. Explain, in your own language, why we ought to 
pray to God on account of our condition as sinners ? 

3. Of what value are the tempers of mind which 
prayer requires? 

4. What would be the difference between a man 
who had these tempers of mind, and one who had them 
not? 

5. What is the parable by which our Saviour 
taught men always to pray and not to faint? Can you 
repeat it? 

6. What encouragements do the Scriptures offer to 
prayer ? 

7. Why does prayer distinguish a good from a bad 
man? 

8. What encouragement to pray do we receive from 
the prayer of Abraham ? 

9. What does God say to Mose3 respecting the 
prayer of the children of Israel, in Egypt? 


THE UTILITY OF PRAYER. 


85 


10. What does the Apostle James say respecting 
the prayer of Elias ? 

11. Where is the prayer of Nehemiah for the 
restoration of the Jews; and how was this prayer 
answered? 

12. How was the prayer of Daniel for divine illu¬ 
mination, answered? 

13. Did Daniel do right in praying to God, when the 
law of the king forbade him ? 

14. What are we to learn from this ? , 

15. Would you not lose a great deal, if you were 
never to ask your parents for anything, and never 
thank them for anything? 

16. Must not people lose a good deal more, who 
never ask God for anything, and never thank him for 
anything ? 

SECTION III. 

THE UTILITY OF PRAYER. 

After what has been already said, but little 
need be added on this subject. We shall only 
remark, that the utility of prayer may be seen, 

1. From the tempers of mind, which, as we 
have before said, it supposes. Every one 
must acknowledge that whatever produces 
such tempers of mind must be of the greatest 
use to a moral and accountable creature. 

2. God has made it the condition on which, 
alone, we can expect the blessings which we 
need. Not that we never receive any favors 
that we do not pray for, but that God prom¬ 
ises to bestow them on no other condition; 


86 


THE UTILITY OF PRAYER. 


and that he declares that he will bestow fa¬ 
vors on those who pray, which he will not be¬ 
stow on thqse who do not pray. 

And that he 'should do this, is surely very 
reasonable. A parent may bestow necessary 
food, and clothing, and care upon all his chil¬ 
dren, but surely he would be a very unjust 
and unwise parent, if he did not make a dif¬ 
ference in his treatment of his children, ac¬ 
cording to their character; that is, if he did 
not, by his conduct, show approbation of the 
obedient and thankful, and disapprobation of 
the disobedient and unthankful. 

That, however, a man shall receive all, and 
at the very time, and in the very manner, in 
which he asks for it, is not asserted. It is 
asserted that he who asks in a proper temper, 
committing all his affairs in pious submission 
to an all-wise, compassionate and faithful 
God, is assured that God will take the charge 
of them, and direct them for the best good of 
the suppliant. No reasonable and pious per¬ 
son could ask for anything more. The answer 
to our prayers, for particular temporal bless¬ 
ings, is therefore to be expected onty contin¬ 
gently ; that is, if it be for our best good. 
But as spiritual blessings, that is, our own 
moral improvement, are undoubtedly for our 
best good, he who asks for these will as- 


QUESTIONS. 


87 


suredly be answered, in his own personal prog¬ 
ress in virtue. 

Since the relations of all men to God are 
essentially the same, all equally stand in 
need of prayer, and will all equally perish if 
they live prayerlessly. It is the duty, there¬ 
fore, of all men, of young and old, of wise 
and unwise, to pray. Neither pressure of 
other duties, nor weight of responsibility, 
forms any excuse for the neglect of it. For, 
the more numerous and important our duties, 
the more solemn will be our account; and the 
more imperative is our need of divine assist¬ 
ance. Nor is youth any excuse for this neg 
lect, unless our ignorance and weakness and 
helplessness be a reason why we should not 
apply for assistance to that Being, in whom, 
by the necessity of his nature, reside the ex¬ 
haustless treasures of infinite wisdom and 
everlasting strength. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Will you not wish, when you come to die, that 
you had cultivated such dispositions as are required of 
us when we pray? 

2. Have you any reason to hope that your sins will 
be forgiven, and that you will be prepared for heaven, 
if you do not pray ? Why ? 

3. Is it not right, that God should bestow favors upon / 
those that pray, which he would not bestow upon thos'/b 
who do not pray ? 


88 THE OBSERVANCE OF THE SABBATH. 

4. When God promises that he will answer prayer, 
does he mean that he will always give us all that we 
ask for? 

5. What does he mean? 

6. What blessings does he promise, without reserve, 
that he will give us if we ask for them ? 

7. D'o young persons stand in need of prayer as 
much as those that are older ? 

8. Is our business any excuse for not devoting time 
to pray to God ? Why ? 

9. Are our studies any excuse for this neglect? 

10. Is our play any excuse for it? 

11. Is it any excuse for this neglect, that we do not 
want to pray ? 

12. Can we form any estimate of our character 
from our habits in this respect ? 

13. Suppose we pray, without any of the proper 
tempers of mind, will it do us any good? 

14. Is there any man who ought not to pray? 


CHAPTER III. 

THE OBSERVANCE OF THE SABBATH. 

Although the sabbath is a positive institu¬ 
tion, and the proof of its obligation is to be 
sought for in the Scriptures, yet there are evi¬ 
dent indications that a portion of our time is 
necessary for rest from labor. Animals and 
men who enjoy one day in seven as a period 
of rest will endure hardship better, and will 
accomplish more labor in a year, than those 


INSTITUTION OF THE SABBATH. 89 

who are worked every day without intermis¬ 
sion. 

We shall, in this chapter, consider the in¬ 
structions of the Scriptures on this subject; 
first , as to the institution of the day, and sec¬ 
ond , as to the manner in which it is to be 
observed. 

SECTION I. 

OF THE INSTITUTION OF THE SABBATH. 

The first reference to this institution is 
found in Gen. ii. 1—3. “ Thus the heavens 

and the earth were finished, and all the hosts 
of them. And on the seventh day, God ended 
his works which he had made, and he rested 
on the seventh day from all his works which 
he had made. And God blessed the seventh 
day, and sanctified it; because that in it he had 
rested from all his works which God created 
and made/’ 

Now concerning this passage we remark: 

1. It is an institution of God. . God 
blessed it. 

2. As it was given to our first parents , it 
was given to the whole human race. 

3. God blessed it , that is, made it a day of 
peculiar blessing to man. He sanctified . it, 
that is, set it apart from a common to a sacred 


use. 


90 


OF THE INSTITUTION 


4. The nature of the ordinance is general. 
God sanctified it, that is, the day. The act 
has reference to no particular people, but to 
the day itself. 

5. The object for which the day is set 
apart is general. If it be rest, all men need 
it. If it be moral cultivation, or the use of 
the day for religious purposes, they all 
equally require such a service. 

There are indications that such a day was 
observed, before the giving of the law. 

1. Gen. iv. 3. Cain and Abel brought in 
process of time , or “at the end,” or “ cutting 
off of days,” an offering unto the Lord. The 
term cutting off, or section of days, seems 
naturally to refer to the sabbath, or close of 
the week. 

2. Noah seems to have observed the divis¬ 
ion of time into weeks. This is evident from 
the periods which he suffered to elapse 
between the sending out of the dove. Gen. 
viii. 10—12. He also entered into the ark 
seven days before the flood came. Gen. vii. 
4—10. 

The next mention of the sabbath is made 
shortly after the departure of the Israelites 
out of Egypt. Ex. xvi. 22—23. “ And it 

came to pass, that on the sixth day they gath¬ 
ered twi6e as much bread, two omers for one 


OF THE SABBATH. 


91 


man, and all the rulers of the congregation 
came and told Moses. And he said unto them, 
this is that which the Lord hath said, to-morrow 
is the rest of the holy sabbath unto the Lord.” 

Concerning this passage I remark: 

1. That as it occurs before the giving of the 
law, the obligatoriness of the sabbath is rec¬ 
ognized irrespective of the law. 

2. Moses speaks of the sabbath as an insti¬ 
tution of which they ought to have known; 
and on which they might have expected the 
occurrence which took place. fje reproves 
them as erring in despite of knowledge, 
although he had before, in this connection, 
given no directions respecting the sabbath. 

The division of time into seven days is 
moreover very common among all ancient na¬ 
tions. This seems to indicate that they all 
received this institution from the same source, 
although the religious observance of it had 
been gradually neglected. . 

From these facts I think we may conclude 
that the sabbath was originally given to the 
whole human race, and that it was observed 
by the Hebrews previously to the giving of 
the law ; and that, in early ages, this observ¬ 
ance was probably universal. 


92 


OF THE INSTITUTION 


OF THE MOSAIC SABBATH. 

The precept for the observance of the sab¬ 
bath, at the giving of the law, is in these 
words : “ Remember the sabbath day to keep 
it holy. Six days shalt thou labor and do all 
thy work, but the seventh is the sabbath of 
the Lord thy God; in it thou shalt not do 
any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, 
nor thy man servant, nor thy maid servant, 
nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within 
thy gates, for in six days the Lord made 
heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them 
is, and rested the seventh day. Wherefore 
the Lord blessed the seventh day and hal¬ 
lowed it.” Ex. xx. 11. In addition to the ob¬ 
servance of this as a day of rest, it was also 
appointed as a day for religious services. 
Lev. xxiii. 3. “ The seventh day is a sabbath 

of rest, a holy convocation.” The sabbath was 
thus observed by the Jews in the days of the 
Apostles. “ Moses, of old time, hath in every 
city those that preach him, being read in the 
synagogues every sabbath day.” Acts xv. 21. 

Now, inasmuch as, 1st, this precept belongs 
'to the law of the ten commandments, of which 
all the others are considered universally obli¬ 
gatory ; 2d, as the reasons given are the same 
as those for its original institution; and 3d, 


OF THE SABBATH. 


93 


as we find it frequently referred to in the 
Prophets as one of the moral laws of God, we 
conclude that it is of unchangeable obligation. 

OF THE CHRISTIAN SABBATH. 

If the command to observe the sabbath is 
universally obligatory, the only question 
which remains to be considered is, why Chris¬ 
tians observe the first day of the week instead 
of the seventh. 

The reason for this is found in the examples 
of inspired Apostles, and of the early Chris¬ 
tians. 

1. That early Christians, with the sanction 
of the Apostles, were accustomed to meet 
statedly to worship God and to celebrate the 
Lord’s Supper, is evident from 1 Cor. xi. 20, 
xiv. 23—40. And that these meetings were 
on the first day of the week is evident from 
1 Cor. xvi. 1—2; Acts xx 6—11. At the 
time of the writing of the Revelations, this 
day had already obtained that name, by which 
it was ever afterwards distinguished. - “ I was 
in the Spirit on the Lord's day 

From this* period, the notices of this day 
are abundant, in all the Christian writers. 
They allude to the keeping of the first day as 
the day of our Lord’s resurrection. So uni¬ 
versal was their practice of observing it as a 


94 


QUESTIONS, 


day of religious worship, that it was thus 
spoken of by the Eoman magistrates; and 
was one common means of convicting them of 
Christianity. 

Now, the example of inspired men is suf¬ 
ficient to prove that the keeping of this day is 
acceptable to God. Nay, as it was kept by 
the Apostles and primitive Christians in the 
place of the other, we seem under some 
moral obligation to follow their example. 
Specially would this be the case when, by 
keeping the first day in preference to the 
seventh, we can better attain the end for 
which the institution was established. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What do you mean by saying that the sabbath is 
a positive institution ? 

2. Repeat the passage in which the institution of 
the sabbath is first recorded. 

3. Why do we suppose that it was given to the 
whole human race? 

4. What is meant by sanctifying the sabbath? 

5. What reasons have we for supposing that the 
sabbath was observed before the time of Moses? 

6. What do we learn from the manner in which 
the sabbath is first mentioned in the wilderness ? 

7. Repeat the commandment in the law, in which the 
keeping of the sabbath is enjoined. 

8. How was the sabbath kept among the Jews, be¬ 
sides being observed as a day of rest? 


OF THE SABBATH. 


95 


9. What was the example of the inspired Apostles 
respecting the day to be kept for worship? 

10. "What was the example of the early Christians, 
and of Christians since that time? 

11. If we are at liberty to keep either the seventh or 
the first day, which day, as Christians, should we wish 
to keep? 

SECTION n. 

OF THE MAXXEB IX WHICH THE SABBATH IS TO BE 
OBSERVED. 

1. The law of the sabbath forbids all labor 
either of body or mind. “ Six days shalt thou 
labor and do all thy work. But the seventh 
is the sabbath of the Lord thy God, in it thou 
shalt not do any work.” The only exceptions 
to this rule are those made by our Saviour; 
works of necessity or of mercy. We have no 
right to labor at our ordinary vocation, whether 
it employ our physical or intellectual faculties, 
nor to travel on this day. It is set apart by 
God, for himself. 

2. It forbids the labor of servants and chil¬ 
dren, in a word, of all those committed to our 
charge. The precept includes our sons and 
daughters, and our servants as well as our¬ 
selves. They stand in the same relations to 
God as ourselves; and we have no right to 
appropriate that 'rime which he has already 
appropriated to himself. And still more, he 
who is at the head of a family is bound to see 




96 


OF THE SABBATH. 


that all under his charge refrain from labor, 
and sanctify the day. 

3. The command of God forbids us to 
emplqy in labor on that day brute animals. 
They are as much entitled to rest as ourselves. 

i^ The command is to rest. Hence it as 
much forbids the employment of our time in 
the pursuit of pleasure as of wealth. It is as 
much a profanation of the sabbath to spend it 
in visiting, journeying, riding, sailing, or in 
any form of amusement, as in labor. 

On the contrary, the precept for the observ¬ 
ance of the sabbath enjoins the keeping of the 
day holy, that is, the sanctifying it, or setting 
it apart for a religious purpose. To rest from 
labor is commanded, but this is not all; we 
are to occupy it in the services of religion. 
Among these are: 

1. Reading the Scriptures, meditation and 
prayer in private. 

2. The special instruction in religion of the 
young, and those committed to our care. Hence 
we are bound to make such arrangements in 
our families as are consistent with this duty. 

3. Social worship. This, under the Mosaic 
and Christian dispensation, has always formed 
an important part of the duties of this day. 

The sabbath is one seventh part of time, 
that is, a whole day. Hence, the whole of it 


OF THE SABBATH. 


97 


is to be consecrated to the service of God. To 
employ any part of it in labor or amusement, 
or in trifling or secular conversation, or read¬ 
ing, is a violation of the command of God. 
It does not begin and end with the ringing of 
the bell for church, but it includes the whole 
day. 

Again. It is set apart for the whole race, that 

is, for all men. Statesmen and legislators are 
under as great obligations to keep it as private 
citizens ; the rich and powerful as much as the 
poor and dependent. Nor are any so insig¬ 
nificant as to be excused from the obligation. 
The child is commanded to keep the day holy 
as much as his parent, and he sins against God 
as much by playing, as older persons do by 
labor, on God’s holy day. 

I would impress these lemarks particularly 
upon the young. One of the first indications 
that a young person is becoming vicious is his 
disrespect of the sabbath and his neglect of 
religious worship. The youthful sabbath- 
breaker rarely fails to become a profligate and 
abandoned man. Let a young person, there¬ 
fore, under all circumstances, keep the sabbath 
day holy, and let him strenuously avoid the 
company of those who are inclined to violate 

it. 


98 


QUESTIONS 


QUESTIONS. 

1. What work may we do on the sabbath day? 

2. Suppose we neglect a work of necessity on Sat¬ 
urday, may we do it on Sunday? Why? 

3. Suppose I employ another to work for me on the 
sabbath, who is in fault, he or I ? 

4. Ought we to spend as much labor in cooking on 
the sabbath as on other days ? Why ? 

5. For what purposes may we use animals on the 
sabbath day? 

6. Animals cannot be religious; why then should 
they rest on the sabbath? 

7. Why should we not amuse ourselves on the sab¬ 
bath; since amusement is a sort of rest and refreshes 
the mind? 

8. What is the great purpose for which God gave 
man the sabbath? 

9. How should the duties of the sabbath be divided? 

10. Ought young persons to keep the sabbath, as 
well as those who are older? 

11. Is it right for young persons to play, to talk of 
their sports and to read trifling books, or to saunter 
about the fields on the sabbath? Why? 

12. Why may we not do this when we are not in 
church, and when our parents do not see us? 

13. Would it be right for legislators to meet, and 
make laws on the sabbath day ? 

14. Suppose one of your companions was in the 
habit of spending his sabbath in amusement, what 
opinion would you form of him, if he had had an 
opportunity to know better? 

15. Did you ever know a good boy or girl who was 
in the habit of breaking the sabbath? 


DUTY OF RECIPROCITY. 


99 


16. Explain how you ought to keep the sabbath, be¬ 
ginning at the morning and going on through the day. 

Haying considered the duties of man to God, 
we next proceed to treat of the duties of man 
to his fellow-man. These may be considered 
under two heads. 1. The duties of reciprocity. 
2. The duties of benevolence. Hence this 
portion of the subject will be divided into two 
parts. 

LOVE TO MAN, OR MORALITY. 


CHAPTER I. 

THE DUTIES OF RECIPROCITY. 

This duty may be illustrated by several con¬ 
siderations. 

1. When we look upon the gifts of God to 
men, and to nations, we observe a very strik¬ 
ing diversity in the means of happiness which 
he has bestowed. One man possesses greater 
strength than another, a second is distinguished 
for personal appearance, a third for taste, a 
fourth for imagination, a fifth for wealth, and 
thus indefinitely. In this respect, therefore, 
men are, in the most striking degree, unequal. 

But in another respect they are all equal, 
God having bestowed these gifts upon each 



100 


DUTY OF RECIPROCITY. 


one, severally, as he will; and has given to 
every one the right to derive from them all the 
happiness in his power, provided he do not so 
use them as to interfere with the happiness of 
his neighbor. In this respect, therefore, that 
is, in the right to use for his own happiness, 
without injury to his neighbor, whatever God 
has given to him, all men stand on the ground 
of perfect equality. 

The case may be illustrated by a familiar 
instance. Suppose that a wise and indulgent 
parent, having remarked the separate disposi¬ 
tions of his children, bestows upon them various 
possessions, according to their individual 
habits and character. To one he gives houses, 
to another land, to another money, and to 
another education. His intention manifestly 
is, that each one should derive all the happiness 
he can from that particular portion which he 
has received. But this diversity of gifts 
confers on no one the right of infringing upon 
the possessions or the means of happiness 
of his brother. And specially, if the father 
had given to one more than to another, this 
inequality would present no reason why he 
who was most favored should, by oppression 
and extortion, make the inequality greater. 

Now the law of reciprocity teaches us to 
observe this distinction in all our dealings 


DUTY OF RECIPROCITY. 


101 


with our fellow-men. It enjoins that as we 
all claim the right to enjoy without molestation 
the means of happiness which God has bestowed 
upon us , we leave every one else to enjoy 
without molestation the means of happiness 
which God has bestowed upon Mm . We 
claim the right to use our senses, our limbs, 
our intellect, our possessions, our reputation, 
as we will, if we do not molest any one else ; 
and we are bound to leave every one else un¬ 
disturbed in the exercise of the same right. 
If we act otherwise, if, to promote our own 
happiness, we infringe upon the right which God 
has given to our neighbor to promote his own 
happiness, we violate the law of reciprocity. 

This duty in the Scriptures is enforced by 
the command, “ Thou shalt love thy neighbor 
as thyself.” 

Our Lord, in the parable of the Good 
Samaritan, teaches us what is meant by the 
words “ our neighbor.” It is the stranger, the 
alien, the national enemy, that is, every man 
whatever, under what circumstances soever he 
may be placed. \ 

But what is meant by “ loving our neighbor 
as ourselves ” ? Let us ask, how do we love 
ourselves? We answer, every one loves to 
enjoy without molestation the means of hap¬ 
piness which God has conferred upon him; 


102 


DUTY OF RECIPROCITY. 


and he is painfully conscious of injury if this 
right be interfered with. In this manner he 
loves himself. Now, in the same manner he 
is bound to love his neighbor. That is, he is 
bound to have the same desire that his neigh¬ 
bor should enjoy unmolested the gifts of God’s 
providence, as he has to enjoy them himself; 
and to feel the same pain, when another man’s 
rights are invaded, as he does when his own 
are invaded. With such sentiments, he would 
be just as unwilling to violate the rights of 
another as to sutler a violation of his own 
rights, fie would love his neighbor’s rights 
as he loves his own ; that is, he would love his 
neighbor as he loves himself. 

The same precept is expressed in other 
places, in another form : All things whatsoever 
ye would that men should do unto you, do ye 
even so unto them ; for this is the law and the 
prophets. Matt. vii. 12. That is to say, would 
we wish to know how delicate is the respect 
which we should entertain towards the rights 
of others, we may always decide it by asking 
how delicate is the respect which we would 
desire others to entertain towards our rights. 
But this precept, I think, goes a single step 
further. It obliges every man to commence 
such a course of conduct, without regard to the 
conduct of others to him. If we complain that 


DUTY OF RECIPROCITY. 103 

another has violated the claim of reciprocity 
towards us, it commands us, before we urge our 
claim for redress, to act upon the principle of 
reciprocity towards him. Every one must see 
that if this command were obeyed, retaliation 
would instantly cease, and that by leaving all 
the injuries at the door of one party, and 
placing before that party the constant example 
of justice, it would deprive him of the shadow 
of apology. Thus, the tendency of such con¬ 
duct would be to banish crime and violence 
from the earth. 

From what we have said, it is evident that 
this precept is of universal application. It 
binds all men, and under all circumstances. 
It applies to the strong and to the weak, the 
rich and the poor, the young and the old. The 
richer the benefits which God has bestowed 
upon us, the greater is the reason why we should 
be satisfied with our lot, and strive to be the 
means of benefiting others. If God has been 
bountiful to us, this surely is no reason why 
we should deprive another, with whom God has 
dealt less liberally, of the slender pittance 
which has been conferred upon him. And this 
applies to children as well as to men. The 
boy who takes from his playfellow a hoop 
or a kite, because he is stronger, or cheats him 
out of it, because he is older and more saga- 


104 


DUTY OF RECIPROCITY. 


cious, just as much violates this law, as the 
roan who robs a house, or steals a horse. 

And the precept applies to nations as well as 
to individuals ; that is, it is given to man, as 
man, under what circumstances soever he may 
be placed. Nations are bound to love the 
rights of other nations as they love their own ; 
and to require of others nothing more than 
they actually exemplify in their own conduct to 
them. It is a much greater wrong for nations 
to oppress, to lie, and to cheat, than for indi¬ 
viduals to do the same wickedness, because it 
inflicts injury, and corrupts the moral senti¬ 
ments of men, to a much wider extent. And, 
for such wrong, both rulers and people will be 
held answerable at> the bar of God. 

And, lastly. Inasmuch as we are all the 
creatures of God, and are all equally under his 
protection, he who violates the law of recipro¬ 
city, not only does wrong to man, but sins 
against God. We are bound to do justice to 
our neighbor, not only because he is our neigh¬ 
bor, but also because he is a creature of God; 
and because God has commanded us to do it. 
No act of injustice, therefore, whether in young 
persons or old, in individuals or nations, is a 
trifling offence, inasmuch as it is a violation of 
our obligations to our Maker, and he will as¬ 
suredly requite it, either in this world or in the 
next. 


QUESTIONS. 


105 


QUESTIONS. 

1. Give examples, from cases which you know, of 
the difference in the j^ifts of God to different persons. 

2. Does this difference give to one a right to inter¬ 
fere with the gifts which God has bestowed upon 
another? Illustrate this. Give examples. 

3. Illustrate this by such examples as these. Sup¬ 
pose one man had a larger farm than another, or was 
stronger than another, or one boy had a larger kite than 
another. 

4. Who is our Eather, and who gives us all things, as 
he pleases? What conclusion should we draw from this? 

5. Illustrate, in your own language, what you mean 
by the law of reciprocity. Show, by examples, how 
you would act if you obeyed it, and how you would act 
if you disobeyed it. 

6. Eepeat, in your own language, the parable of the 
Good Samaritan. 

7. When we consider the question to which the para¬ 
ble was an answer, and the command of Christ at the 
close, what do we suppose that Christ meant to teach 
us by it ? 

8. Give an example of loving your neighbor as your¬ 
self. 

9. Illustrate, by example, what you understand by 
the precept, As ye would that men should do unto you, 
do ye even so unto them. 

10. Suppose another person has treated you unkindly, 
how ought you to treat himwlien you ask him to make 
reparation? 

11. You feel that it is wrong for another person to 
treat you ill; what does this feeling teach you in re¬ 
spect to your treatment to him? 


106 


PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


12. If God has given you greater strength, or wealth, 
or knowledge than another person, what right does this 
give you over that other person ? 

13. What obligation does it impose upon you towards 
him? 

14. We are much stronger and wiser than the Indian 
tribes on our frontier. Does this give us any right to 
interfere with the means of happiness which God has 
given to them ? Why ? 

15. Suppose we violate the duty of reciprocity, is 
this a sin against God? Why? Explain this in your 
own language. 

— ♦ - - 

CHAPTER II. 

OP PERSONAL LIBERTY, AND THE MODE IN WHICH 
IT MAY BE VIOLATED. 

I have said that every man has an equal 
right to use whatever means of happiness God 
has bestowed upon him, in such a manner as 
he pleases, provided he do not so use it as to 
molest his neighbor. Among these gifts are 
our limbs and faculties, our intellect and our 
conscience. That is, we all have a right to 
use the various powers of our bodies, our minds 
and our conscience, in such manner as we 
please, provided we do not interfere with the 
right which every other man has to use his 
means of happiness in the same manner. 
Every man has a right so to use his eyes, his 



PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


107 


hands, and his feet, as will promote his own 
happiness, if he will leave others unmolested. 
Everyone has a right to study what he please, 
and to make known what he believes to be 
truth, to those who are willing to hear it; and 
to worship God in such a manner as he believes 
will be acceptable to him, provided only he 
does this without interfering with the rights of 
his neighbor. 

The only apparent exceptions to this are 
such as spring from the relation of parent and 
child. 

1. A parent is under obligation to support a 
child and is responsible for his actions. He 
must therefore have a right to control his ac¬ 
tions. He .is responsible to God for the intel¬ 
lectual and moral education of the child, and 
therefore he has a right to direct what his 
child shall read, and what religious instruction 
he shall receive. 

2. A parent has a right to the services of 
his child until he becomes of age, and is able 
to provide for himself. This right he may, as 
in the case of apprenticeship, transfer to an¬ 
other. But, as his own right is limited by age, 
he can transfer it for no longer time than he 
could enforce it himself. This right of the 
parent over the child, however, ceases when 
the child becomes of age; and after that, the 


108 


PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


parties stand, so far as natural right is con¬ 
cerned, upon the same level with other men. 

The right of personal liberty ma}' be vio¬ 
lated, 1. By the individual; and 2. By society. 

SECTION I. 

THE VIOLATION OF PERSONAL LIBERTY BY THE INDI¬ 
VIDUAL. 

The most common form of this violation is 
in the case of domestic slavery. 

Domestic slavery proceeds upon the belief 
that A, by the payment of money to B, may 
obtain a right to use C as his property. It 
supposes that one man has no right to use his 
limbs, his intellect, and his other powers, for 
the promotion of his own happiness ; but only 
in such a manner as will promote the happiness 
of another. And it supposes a man to have 
this right, not over a single individual only, 
but over as many as he can obtain by purchase. 

It is manifest that slavery involves the right 
over the intellect and conscience, for if it 
exist, it must involve everything, necessary to 
its existence and perpetuity. And that such 
control is supposed necessary is evident from 
the fact that in all cases of apprehended 
insurrection the master has always assumed 
it, and has claimed the right to do so. 

The precepts of the Gospel seem equally, 


PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


109 


with those of natural religion, at variance with 
the existence of slavery. 

The precept of the Christian religion is, thou 
shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. The mean¬ 
ing of this precept we have before shown. 
Now this must be absolutely prohibitory of 
slavery, unless it can be shown that any man 
is not my neighbor. Every one must admit 
that were this precept universally obeyed, 
slavery could not exist for a moment, in fact, 
though it might exist for a while, in form. 

Again. Every one sees that slavery of 
white men is at variance with the precepts of 
religion. We all thus judge respecting the 
slavery formerly existing in the Barbary States. 
But does difference of color make any change 
in moral right and moral obligation ? 

If it be said that the Old Testament recog¬ 
nized slavery, we answer, this was an era of 
comparative moral darkness, to which, under 
the clearer light of the Gospel, we need not go 
for illumination. It also allowed of divorce, 
which the New Testament forbids. 

If it be said that the New Testament does 
not forbid it, we answer, the first precept of 
the New Testament is such that, if it were 
obeyed, slavery could not exist. It is unjust 
to say that it does not forbid it, because it does 
not take that particular mode of extirpating it 
which we might select. 


110 


PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


While, however, such is the law of Nature 
and Revelation, it is proper that we should 
declare what seems to be the duty of men to 
each other, supposing this relation to have 
become established. 

1. It is the duty of every man to recognize 
the right of every other man to all the blessings 
which God has given to both. Hence, if the 
slave be able to take care of himself, it is the 
duty of the master at once to put an end to a 
relation Vhich can be continued no longer with¬ 
out injustice; the master will either imme¬ 
diately manumit him, or, by allowing him such 
wages as are just, enable him, in process of 
time, to liberate himself. 

If the slave be not able to take care of him¬ 
self, then it will be the duty of the master to 
elevate his character, and improve his under¬ 
standing, so that he shall become so. As soon 
as this is accomplished, the duty of the master 
is the same as in the preceding case. 

On the other hand, the duty of the slave is 
submission and obedience in all cases in 
which this obedience is not at variance with 
the command of God. The fact that the mas¬ 
ter exercises an unlawful authority does not 
give to the slave the liberty of resort to force. 
And slaves are commanded to do this on the 
ground that this meekness and forbearance 


QUESTIONS. Ill 

and submission under injury is well pleasing 
unto God, who will render unto every man 
according to his deeds. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Suppose a man should imprison another in his 
house, in what manner would he violate the laws of 
reciprocity? 

2. Suppose he would not let him go off from his 
farm, what violation would this be ? 

3. How does the institution of slavery violate the 
right of personal liberty? 

4. Could slavery exist, if equal right over their 
bodies and minds were allowed to all men? 

. 5. Could slavery exist, if every one understood and 
loved the rights of his neighbor as he does his own? 

6. Would it be right for us to enslave men of our 
own color? 

7. Does difference of color make any difference of 
right ? 

8. Suppose slavery was allowed under the Qld Tes¬ 
tament, does it render it lawful for us ? Why? 

9. Suppose you were a master, and were convinced 
that it was contrary to the law of God to hold a slave, 
what ought you to do ? 

10. Suppose the slave was so ignorant, and unac¬ 
customed to care, that he could not, if free, support 
himself, what ought you then to do? 

11. Suppose you thus held him for his own good, 
and for the purpose of fulfilling the law of reciprocity, 
would you be guilty of the wrong of slavery? Why? 

12. Suppose you were a slave, what would be your 
duty to your master and to God? 


112 


PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


SECTION II. 

VIOLATION OF PERSONAL LIBERTY BY SOCIETY. 

By a society is meant a number of indi¬ 
viduals associated together, and agreeing to 
be governed by certain laws. Thus a family 
is society governed by the laws enacted by the 
parents. Thus men form societies among 
themselves, such as philosophical or benevo¬ 
lent societies, for the purpose of accomplish¬ 
ing certain objects. Thus nations are also 
societies, composed of individuals, united un- 
. der certain laws, for the purpose of accom¬ 
plishing other objects. 

I have before stated that God has com¬ 
mitted to every individual such means of hap¬ 
piness as he has pleased, and has given to all 
men an equal right to employ those means as 
they choose, provided they do not employ 
them to the molestation of their neighbors. 
So long as they employ them innocently, 
therefore, they are not responsible to any one ; 
and, if any one interfere with the innocent 
employment of them, it is tyranny or oppres¬ 
sion. 

But it is evident that a society may thus 
interfere as well as an individual. Thus a 
whole family, as well as any one member, 


PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


113 


may turn against a single individual, and 
agree to oppress him. So, also, a nation, 
which is a larger society, may agree together 
to injure a single individual or several indi¬ 
viduals ; that is, they may make laws which 
shall interfere with the innocent pursuit of his 
or their happiness, and thus be guilty of op¬ 
pression. 

When men unite together in a nation, they . 
appoint certain persons to make and to exe¬ 
cute laws, who are called the government of 
that nation. These persons are Legislators, 
and the assembly, when convened, is called 
Parliament, Congress, or a Legislature, and 
those who execute the laws are called Judges, 
etc. Hence, oppression is generally executed 
by governments, though, in fact, it can never 
be executed but with the consent of the 
people. Sometimes, however, the people are 
guilty of oppression, even in opposition to the 
government; this is the case when mobs 
assemble to injure and molest individuals; 
and it is one of the most odious and detestable 
forms of oppression and tyranny. 

I. Societies interfere with the personal lib¬ 
erty of individuals in several cases. 

1. When an individual is imprisoned with¬ 
out crime, or reasonable suspicion of crime. 

2. Whenever, although he may be possibly 


114 


Personal liberty. 


guilty of crime, he is punished without a fair 
and impartial trial. Until a crime is proved 
there is against a man nothing but suspicion. 
And, if it be allowed to punish men on suspi¬ 
cion, the innocent are as likely to suffer as the 
guilty ; that is, there is an end of justice. 

3. When a man is forbidden to go where he 
pleases, and employ himself as he pleases, 
provided he do it to the injury of no one. 
This is the case when a man is forbidden to 
leave a county, or to set up his trade in a 
particular district. All these violations of 
liberty occur in many of the nations of Europe 
and Asia. 

II. Society may interfere with the intelr 
lectual liberty of man. / 

1. When a man is forbidden to study any¬ 
thing that he chooses. Thus, in some coun¬ 
tries, a man is forbidden to study the Bible 
and many other instructive books. 

2. When a man is forbidden to publish his 
opinions on any subject not interfering with 
the rights of others. This was the case when 
Galileo was forbidden to publish his opinions 
respecting astronomy; and wherever men are 
forbidden to circulate the Scriptures and re¬ 
ligious books. 

When, however, men publish works which 
tend to excite the wicked passions of men, 


PERSONAL LIBERTY. 


115 


and lead them to violence, or when they pub¬ 
lish what will injure the reputation of their 
neighbors, it is the duty of society to inter¬ 
fere and punish the guilty. This, however, 
is only to be done after a fair and impartial 
trial, to which a man, in this case, as in any 
other, is fully entitled. 

III. Society may interfere with the religious 
libert}^ of the individual. As the cultivation 
of his moral nature is one means of happiness, 
every man is at liberty to cultivate it in any 
manner that he chooses, without injury to his 
neighbor. Society violates this right, 

1. When the exercise of any mode of wor¬ 
shipping God, which does not molest other 
men, is forbidden. 

2. When any mode of worship is com¬ 
manded, because that which is thus com¬ 
manded may seem to those on whom it is im¬ 
posed contrary to their obligations to God. 

3. By inflicting punishments on men, or de¬ 
priving them of any of their rights, because 
they profess one religion in preference to 
another. 

4. By any method in which religious men 
are deprived of any facilities for the prosecu¬ 
tion of their happiness in this way, which are 
granted to other men for prosecuting it ip any 
other way. If the whole subject of religion 


116 


QUESTIONS. 


is a matter between a man and his God, so¬ 
ciety has no right to interfere with it unless a 
man so perform what he considers to be his 
duties to God as to interfere with his duties to 
man. And, in this case, the interference is 
not on the ground that the thing in question is 
a good or bad religion, but on the ground that 
there is a violation of the rights of man. 

Religious liberty is violated in those coun¬ 
tries where only a particular form of religion 
is allowed; and also where a particular form 
is established by law, and the professors of 
every other are deprived, for this cause, of 
many of their just rights. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Suppose you wished to form a society, how would 
you do it? 

2. Suppose one hundred men were cast away on a 
desolate island, and wished to form a government, how 
would they proceed ? 

3. What general principles should they adopt as the 
foundation of all their laws ? 

4. Can people, as well as governments, be guilty of 
oppression? Give an example. 

5. In some countries, kings, when displeased with 
any of their people, have ordered them to be im¬ 
prisoned for life. Was this right? Why? 

6. Suppose a man was suspected of murder, but 
there was no proof against him, would it be right to 
imprison him or punish him? Why? 


QUESTIONS. 


117 


7. In some countries men are forbidden to go to any 
other country, though they might greatly benefit their 
condition by so doing. Is this right? Why? 

8. Why should not governments direct what books 
the people shall read? 

9. Peter and John were beaten by the Jews, for de¬ 
claring that Jesus was the Messiah. Why was this 
wrong ? 

10. Suppose a man should publish a book persuad¬ 
ing all men to rob and murder their neighbors. Ought 
this to be allowed? Why? 

11. Suppose there should be a number of Mahome- 
dans in the United States; would it be right to let them 
build a mosque, and publish the Koran, and celebrate 
their false worship? 

12. Ought not all men to worship God? Ought we 
not then to oblige them to worship God? If our way 
of worship is right, ought we not to make them wor¬ 
ship him in our way ? 

13. In some countries men are deprived of the right 
of holding office, unless they worship God in one way. 
Is this right? Why? 

14. Legislatures have sometimes attempted to forbid 
men from giving away property to religious objects. 
Is this right? Why? >. 

15. Is it right to banish men for their religious opin¬ 
ions? Why? 


118 


RIGHT OF PROPERTY. 


CHAPTER III. 

OF PROPERTY, 

SECTION I. 

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE RIGHT OF PROPERTY. 

The right of property is the right to use 
something as I choose, provided I do not so 
use it as to interfere with the rights of my 
neighbor. Thus, if a man own a horse, he has 
a right to use it in his own labor as he will, 
and no one, except in case of excessive 
cruelty, has a right to interfere. But a man 
has no right to use his horse to eat up his 
neighbor’s oats ; and it would be no excuse for 
his conduct for him to plead that the horse 
was his own, and he had a right to use'him as 
he pleased. 

We proceed to consider the modes in which 
the right of property may be acquired. 

These are either direct or indirect . 

First. Direct. 

1. By the immediate gift of God. 

When God has given me a desire for any 
object, and has placed the object before me, 
and there is no rational creature to contest my 
claim, I may take it, and use it as I will, sub¬ 
ject only to the limitation of my obligations to 
him and to my fellow-creatures. On this 


RIGHT OF PROPERTY. 


119 


principle is founded my right to enter upon 
wild and unappropriated lands, to hunt wild 
game, to pluck wild fruit, to take fish in rivers, 
or in the ocean, or anything of this sort. 

2. By the labor of my own hands. 

If I own a piece of land, and by the labor 
of my hands raise an ear of corn, that ear of 
corn is mine, as much as the labor by which it 
was produced. If, however, another own the 
farm, and I labor upon it, I am entitled only 
to the portion which has been agreed upon be¬ 
tween us. He is entitled to his share for the 
use of the farm, and I to my share, as the 
reward of my labor. This is the nature of 
wages. 

Second. Indirect . 

1. By exchange. 

If I own anything, I have the right inno¬ 
cently to use it as I will; and of course, if I 
see fit, to part with it for something else. As 
my neighbor has the same right, we may mutu¬ 
ally exchange the ownership of particular arti¬ 
cles with each other. When such an exchange 
is made by the respective owners, property is 
held rightfully. 

2. By gift. 

As I may rightfully part with, and another 
rightfully receive, my property for an equiva¬ 
lent rendered; so 1 may, if I choose, part 


120 


RIGHT OP PROPERTY, 


with it without an equivalent; that is, in obe¬ 
dience to my feelings of benevolence, affection, 
or gratitude! This also confers a valid title to 
property. 

3. By will. 

As I have the right to dispose of my prop¬ 
erty during my lifetime, or may exchange or 
give it away as I see fit, previous to my 
decease ; so I may give it to another on con¬ 
dition that he shall not enter upon possession 
until after my death. 

4. By inheritance. 

As men frequently die intestate, that is, with¬ 
out having made a will, society presumes upon 
the manner in which they would wish their 
property to be disposed of. Thus, it is sup¬ 
posed that a husband and a parent would wish 
his property to be distributed among his wife 
and children ; or, if a man have neither wife 
nor children, among his nearest relations. On 
such principles, therefore, the laws respecting 
inheritance are formed. This also gives a 
valid right to property. 

5. By possession. 

If a man hold property without any valid 
title, yet, if no one can show any better title, 
we are bound to leave him unmolested. This 
is evident, for he who takes it away, with no 
better title, would be liable to be immediately 


QUESTIONS. 


121 


dispossessed by another, and thus contentions 
would arise without end, and continue forever, 
all without any beneficial result. 

To sum up what has been said in a few 
words. The right of property may be origin - 
ally acquired , either by the gift of God, or by 
the labor of our hands. It may be subse¬ 
quently acquired , either by exchange, by gift, 
by will, or b} 7 inheritance under law. But in 
all cases of transfer of ownership, the consent 
of the original owner , either expressed or inter¬ 
preted by society, is necessary to render the 
transfer morally right. And lastly, although 
the individual may not have acquired a valid 
title to property, yet mere possession is a suf¬ 
ficient bar to molestation, unless some claimant 
can prefer a better title. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. By what right would you kill and eat a deer in a 
forest, or a buffalo on a prairie ? 

2. By what right would you .take possession of and 
cultivate an island which you discovered? 

3. By what right do you hold, as your property, the 
cattle which you have reared ? 

4. Explain the right of property acquired by ex¬ 
change, and give an example. 

5. Why should men have a right to direct what shall 
be done with their property after they are dead ? 

6. Suppose a man has gained possession of a house 
to which he has no right, but of which I do not know 


122 


RIGHT OF PROPERTY. 


who is the real owner; hare I any right to turn him 
out? Why? 

7. Enumerate and give examples of the various 
modes by which property may be rightfully acquired. 

8. Ennmerate the articles which you possess, and 
explain the right by which you hold them. 

SECTION II. 

or THE MODES IN WHICH THE RIGHT OE PROPERTY 
MAY BE VIOLATED. 

The right of property, as we have said, is 
the right to use something as we will, provided 
we do not use it to the molestation of our neigh¬ 
bor. This right is exclusive. Provided a man 
uses his property within these limits, no one 
whatever has a right to interfere with him. 
And the right also covers all his possessions. 
No one has any more right to take a part, 
though ever so small, than to take the whole. 
It is just as much a violation of the right of 
property to take an apple, as to take a horse ; 
to take what belongs to the public, as that 
which belongs to the individual. 

Again, we have said that no transfer of prop¬ 
erty is valid, without the voluntary consent of 
the owner. And this consent is not available 
of right, if it be influenced by motives pre¬ 
sented wrongfully by the receiver. If I 
threaten a man with death, if he does not give 


RIGHT OF PROPERTY. 


123 


me money, he may choose to give me the 
money rather than be shot; but this (Joes not 
render the transfer just. If I make a false 
representation to a man, and thus influence 
him, the injustice is the same. In the one case 
it is robbery, in the other case it is swindling. 
And thus in general every transfer of prop¬ 
erty is morally wrong, when the consent of 
the owner is obtained by means of a vicious 
act on the part of him who receives it. 

Hence the right of property may be violated, 

1. By taking property without knowledge 
of the owner, or theft. It does not vary the 
nature of the transaction, to say that the 
owner “ does not care about it,” or that “ he 
will never miss it,” or “ would have no objec¬ 
tion.” The simple question is, has he consented 
to the transfer ? If he have not, the action is 
theft. 

2. By taking the property of another by 
consent violently obtained, or robbery. 

Here we wickedly obtain power over a man’s 
person, and then offer him the choice of death 
or injury, or the surrender of his property. 
As this is an aggravated violation of right, and 
also always endangers life, it is punished with 
the utmost severity, being in most countries 
made a capital offence. 

3. By consent fraudulently obtained, or 
cheating. 


124 


QUESTIONS. 


This may be of two kinds. 1. When no 
equivalent is offered, as when a beggar obtains 
money on false pretences. 

2. Where the equivalent offered is different 
from what it purports to be ; or when con¬ 
sent is obtained by a fraudulent act on the 
part of him who obtains it. 

As this case includes by far the greatest 
number of violations of the law of property, 
and as it is that from which most of the others 
proceed, it will be treated of at considerable 
length. 

We shall divide the subject into three parts. 

1. When the equivalent is material, and the 
transfer perpetual. 

2. When the equivalent is material, and the 
transfer is for a limited time. 

. 3. When the equivalent is immaterial. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. If you own anything, how much of it do you own? 

2. If you own anything, how much of it may any 
one take without your consent? 

3. How much may you take from another person 
without his consent ? 

4. Suppose there was a pile of wood belonging to 
the town; would there be any difference between tak¬ 
ing some of it, and taking wood from an individual? 

5. Suppose I oblige a man to give me money by a 
threat; what is the nature of the crime ? 


THE LAW OF PROPERTY. 


125 


6. Suppose I obtain money from another, by telling 
a lie; what crimes do I commit ? 

7. Suppose you were passing by an orchard, and 
took some apples; would it be any excuse to say that 
the owner wotild never know it? Who would know it? 

8. Have you any objection to another person’s tak¬ 
ing from you what is yours? 

9. Have you any right to say that another person 
will have no objection to your taking what is his? 

10. Suppose an older brother should take, by force, 
an apple from a younger brother; what would this act 
be? 

11. Suppose one boy should run away with another 
boy’s kite, what would this be ? 

12. Suppose a girl should take a needle from the 
needle-case of another, without the other’s knowing it; 
what would this be? 

13. Suppose a man should beg money for medicine 
for his family, saying they were sick when they were 
not; what would this be? 

14. Suppose you sold a knife for a good one, which 
you knew would break the first time it was used; what 
would this be ? 

SECTION III. 

THE LAW OF PROPERTY, WHEN THE EQUIVALENT IS 

MATERIAL, AND THE TRANSFER PERPETUAL, OR THE 

LAW OF BUYER AND SELLER. 

The nature of the law in this case may be 
seen from considering the relative situation of 
the parties to each other. He who wants a 
pound of tea, or a yard of calico, could not go 


126 


THE LAW OF PROPERTY. 


to China for the one, nor to the manufacturer 
for the other. It is therefore for his interest 
to pay a person to keep these things on hand 
for him, that he may buy them whenever, and 
in what quantities soever, he may want. This 
the merchant undertakes to do for him; and 
therefore he acquaints himself with the qualities 
of the goods, and employs his time and money 
in buying them and keeping them for sale. 
This is a mutual advantage to both parties. 
The merchant is bound to exert his best skill 
and talent for the good of the customer, and 
the customer is bound to allow him a fair re¬ 
muneration for his time, skill and expenses. 

Hence, 1. The merchant is under obligation 
to furnish goods of the same quality as that 
ordinarily furnished at the same prices. He is 
paid for his skill in purchasing, and if he do 
not possess that skill, the fault is his own, and 
he ought to suffer the consequences. 

If he h^ve purchased a bad article, and has 
been deceived, he has no right to sell it at the 
market price, on the ground that he gave as 
much for it as he would have done if it had 
been good. If he had purchased an article 
very cheap, he would have been entitled to the 
benefit of his skill; and if his skill be deficient 
he must abide the consequences, by selling, not 
according to what it cost , but according to what 
it is worth. 


THE LAW OF PROPERTY. 


127 


The only exception to this rule is where it 
is known that the purchaser buys at his own 
risk; as when a horse is sold at auction, and 
nothing is said about it. It is then under¬ 
stood that every one examines and decides for 
himself, and bids accordingly. 

2. The merchant is not only bound to sell, 
but is at liberty to sell, at the market price. 
That he is bound to sell thus, it is evident from 
the fact that he endeavors to persuade every 
one that he does so. That he is at liberty to 
do this, is evident from the fact that if his 
goods fall in price on bis hands, he must sell 
at the same price as others, or else no one will 
purchase of him. If, then, he must suffer in 
case of a fall of price, he may charge propor¬ 
tion ably, with a rise of price. If 1 have given 
five dollars a barrel for flour, and flour falls to 
four dollars, I must sell for four. If it rise to 
seven, I may charge seven, without regard to 
what it cost me. 

3. The seller, however, has no right to in¬ 
fluence the judgment of the buyer by any 
motives aside from those derived from the 
real value of the article in question. 

He has no right to appeal to the fears, or 
hopes, or avarice of the buyer. He has no 
right to spread false reports, concerning the 
plenty or' scarcity of the article in question ; 


128 


THE LAW OF PROPERTY. 


nor to purchase it in large quantities for the 
sake of creating an artificial scarcity. He has 
no right to take advantage of the youth, inex¬ 
perience, or vanity of the buyer; and stimulate 
him to make large purchases, or at great 
prices, or to practise the arts which are fre¬ 
quently resorted to, by those who are commonly 
called good salesmen. 

4. These remarks apply with just the same 
force to the buyer. Both parties are under 
equal and corresponding obligations. The 
bityer is bound to allow to the seller a fair 
remuneration for his labor, time, interest and 
risk. He is also forbidden to attempt to in¬ 
fluence the mind of the seller by false informa¬ 
tion, or by any of those artifices by which 
men frequently underrate the value of what they 
wish to purchase. “ ’Tis naught, ’tis naught, 
saith the buyer, but when he goeth his way, 
then he boasteth.” 

It is vain to reply to these remarks, that if 
men acted thus, their families could not be 
supported. It is better to be poor than to act 
dishonestly, and disobey God. Besides, is it 
not evident, that two parties acting on these 
principles would both succeed better than 
by endeavoring to cheat each other? And 
again, if a man attempt to cheat me, that is a 
reason wh}^ I should not traffic with him ; it is 
no reason why I should try to cheat him. 


THE LAW OF PROPERTY. 


129 


5. A bargain is concluded, when the parties 
have signified to each other their will to make 
the transfer. Henceforth, all the risk of loss 
and the chance of gain are mutually trans¬ 
ferred ; although the articles themselves have 
never been removed. Hence, if an article 
become injured after the sale, and before the 
delivery, the purchaser bears the loss, unless 
the delivery were one of the conditions of sale ; 
and then all loss, previous to actual delivery, 
is borne by the seller. If I -buy a load of coal 
on the wharf, and the wharf be washed a^ r ay, 
the loss is mine. If I buy a load of coal and 
pay for the delivery at my house, and the cart 
break down, and the coal be lost, the loss falls 
upon the seller. 

6. The buyer is bound to inform the seller 
of any uncommon rise in the value of his 
goods. If he buys without so doing, it is fraud. 
If the property of my neighbor rise in value 
by the providence of God, while it is in his 
possession, the advantage as justly belongs to 
him, as the property itself. I have no more 
right to deprive him of the one than of the other. 

These principles are, it is to be feared, too 
commonly lost sight of in the transaction of 
business. They are violated when men sell 
goods of a different character from that which 
the name of the goods imports ; as when wines 


130 


QUESTIONS. 


are weakened and adulterated ; when ordinary 
weight or measure is curtailed; or when a 
different fabric from that ordinarily understood 
by the name is substituted, as when cotton and 
linen is sold for linen cloth. It is in vain to 
palliate these wrongs by telling of their 
universality, as though universal wickedness 
could render vice, virtue. The law of God is, 
“Thou shalt not covet/’and it matters not, 
who, or how many, disobey it, God will judge 
every man according to his works. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Suppose you were to open a store, what is justly 
expected of you? 

2. What good does a merchant do in community? 
Explain in your own language. 

3. What do you give for marbles? What would they 
cost, if you had to go to Holland for them? 

4. What do you give for needles ?. What would they 
cost, if you had to go to England for them? 

5. Suppose you had purchased a piece of cloth and 
found it was damaged; have you any right to sell it for 
good cloth? Why? 

6. Suppose you have purchased it at an auction for 
damaged, and it proves to be good; are you obliged to 
sell it for damaged? Why? 

7. Suppose a man comes into your store to buy, and 
does not know anything about the price of goods; may 
you ask him whatever you please? Why? 

8. Suppose a man came to your store to buy, would 
you have a right to induce him to believe the article 


OF LOANS OF PROPERTY. 131 

was very scarce, to make him buy more, when such 
was not the case ? 

9. Suppose I write to a merchant to send me a load 
of corn from Richmond, and the vessel is cast away, 
who hears the loss ? Suppose he offers to deliver it for 
such a price, and I pay it, who bears it then? Why is 
this? 

10. Suppose I hear of the declaration of war, and 
know that flour is worth twice its previous value; have 
I a right to buy of one who has not heard the news, at 
the former price? 

11. Would men grow rich, faster or slower, if they 
all obeyed the rules of strict justice? 

SECTION IV. 

OF TEMPORARY TRANSFERS OF PROPERTY, OR LOANS. 

A man frequently wishes for the use of the 
property of another for a specified time. He 
is then under an obligation to pay a reason¬ 
able price for this temporary possession. The 
amount paid for the use of money is called 
interest. What is paid for the use of other 
property, is called rent , or hire. 

The principles by which this remuneration 
is fixed are the following: the borrower pays, 
1st, for the use, and 2d, for the risk. 

1. The use. Some property is more useful, 
that is, is capable of yielding a larger profit 
than other property. One farm will yield 
a larger crop than another. And the same 


132 


OF LOANS OF PROPERTY. 


property may be worth more at some times 
than at others. When there are many per¬ 
sons desirous of hiring farms, the rent of a 
farm will justly be higher than when many 
farms are unoccupied and no one wishes to 
hire. 

2. For the risk. When an owner parts with 
his property, in some cases it is much more 
certain that he shall receive it back uninjured 
than in others. The risk in loaning a farm is 
less than in loaning a ship. The risk of loan¬ 
ing a house is less than in loaning a horse. 
As this risk is greater or less, the remunera¬ 
tion is justly increased or diminished. Hence 
the price of a loan is always to be adjusted in 
view of these two circumstances. 

Loans are of two kinds. 1st, loans of 
money, and 2d, loans of other property. 

The loan of money. 1. The lender is bound 
to demand no more than a fair remuneration 
for the use of his capital, and for the risk to 
which it is exposed. 

2. He is bound to make use of no unlawful 
means to influence the-decision of the bor¬ 
rower. The principles here are the same as 
those which govern the permanent exchange 
of property. 

3. The borrower is bound to pay a just 
equivalent, as I have stated above ; and he is 


OF LOANS OF PROPERTY. 


133 


equally forbidden to use any dishonest mo¬ 
tives to influence the decision of the lender. 

4. Inasmuch as the risk of the property is 
one part of the consideration for which the 
owner receives remuneration, the borrower has 
no right to expose the property of another to 
any risk not contemplated in the contract. 

Hence, he has no right to invest it in a more 
hazardous trade, nor has he a right to employ it 
in a more hazardous speculation; and if he 
does he is using it in a manner for which he 
has paid no equivalent. He is also under obli¬ 
gation to take all the care to avoid losses, 
which he would take if the property were his 
own, and to use the same skill to conduct his 
affairs successfully. 

5. He is also bound to repay the loan exactly, 
according to the terms specified in the contract. 
This requires that he pay the full sum promised, 
and that he pay it precisely at the time promised. 
A failure, in either case, is a breach of the con¬ 
tract. 

The question is often asked, whether a debt¬ 
or is morally liberated by an act of insolvency. 
I think not, if he ever afterwards have the 
means of payment. It may be said, this is 
oppressive to debtors, but we ask, is not the 
contrary principle oppressive to creditors, and 
are not the rights of one party just as valuable 
and just as much rights as those of the other? 


134 


OF LOANS OF PROPERTY. 


OF THE LOAN OF OTHER PROPERTY. 

The principles which apply in this case are 
very similar to those which have been already 
stated. 

1. The lender is bound to furnish an article, 
which, so far as he knows, is adapted to the pur¬ 
poses of the borrower. That is, if the thing 
borrowed has any internal defect, he is bound to 
reveal it. If I loan a horse to a man who wishes 
to ride forty miles to-day, while I know that the 
animal is able to go but thirty, it is a fraud. If 
I let to a man a house which I know to be in the 
neighborhood of a nuisance, or to be in part un¬ 
inhabitable, from smoky chimneys, and do not 
inform him, it is fraud. The loss in the value 
of the property is mine, and I have no right to 
transfer it to another. 

2. So the lender has a right to charge the 
market price arising from the considerations of 
use, risk, and variation in supply and demand. 
This depends upon the same principles as those 
already explained. 

3. The borrower is bound to take the same 
care of the property of another as he would take 
of his own,.to put it to no risk different from 
that specified or understood in the contract, 
and to pay the price upon the principle 
stated above. Neither party has any right to 


OF LOANS OF PROPERTY. 


135 


influence the other by any motives extraneous 
to the simple business of the transfer. 

4. The borrower is bound to return the prop¬ 
erty loaned precisely according to the contract. 
This includes time and condition. He must re¬ 
turn it at the time specified, and in the condition 
in which he received it, ordinary wear and tear, 
only excepted. If I hire a house for a year, and 
so damage its paper and paint that before it 
can be let again it will cost half the price of the 
rent to put it in repair, it is a gross fraud. It 
is just as immoral as to pay the whole and then 
pick the owner’s pocket of the half of what he 
had received. 

The important question arises here, if a loss 
happen while the property is in the hands of 
the borrower, on whom it shall fall. The prin¬ 
ciple I suppose to be this. 

1. If it happen while the property is subject to 
the use specified in the contract, the owner bears 
it, because it is to be supposed that he fore¬ 
saw the risk, and received remuneration for it. 

2. If the loss happen in consequence of any 
use not contemplated in the contract, then the 
borrower suffers it. If a horse die while I am 
using it carefully, and for the purpose specified, 
the owner suffers. If it die by careless driving, 
I suffer the loss. He is bound to furnish a good 
horse, and I a competent driver. 


136 


OF INSURANCE. 


3. The same principle governs, if a gain 
arise unexpectedly. If this gain was one which 
was contemplated in the contract, it belongs to 
the borrower. If not, he has no equitable claim 
to it. If I hire a farm, I am entitled, without 
any additional charge for rent, to all the advan¬ 
tages arising from the rise in the price of wheat, 
or from my own skill in agriculture. But if a 
mine of coal be discovered on the farm, I have 
no right to the benefit of working it, for I did 
not hire the farm for this purpose. 

OF INSURANCE. 

There is always a liability that property may 
be lost, as by fire, or by storm and tempest. 
This liability is called risk. When one man in¬ 
sures for another, he agrees for a given sum to 
bear this risk. Thus my house is liable to take 
fire. My neighbor says, if you will give me 
twenty dollars a year I will pay you the value 
of your house if it burns down. Or, if I am 
going to send a ship to China, or anywhere else, 
I pay a certain sum to the insurer, and he agrees 
to pay me for the ship if it be cast away or 
lost. This is called insurance. When men 
unite together to insure houses or vessels, this 
is called an insurance company. He who 
insures another’s property is called an under¬ 
writer. 


QUESTIONS. 


137 


The rule in this case is simple. The insured 
is bound fully to reveal to the insurer every cir¬ 
cumstance within his knowledge, which could 
in any measure affect the value of the risk; 
that is to say, the property must be, so far as 
he knows, what it purports to be, and the risks 
none other than such as he reveals them. If 
he expose the property to other risks, the in¬ 
surance is void, and the underwriter, if the 
property is lost, refuses to remunerate him; 
and if it be safe, he returns the premium. If 
the loss occur within the terms of the policy, 
the insurer is bound fully and faithfully to 
make remuneration precisely according to the 
terms of the contract. 

As to the rate of insurance very little need be 
said. It varies with every risk, and is made up 
of so many conflicting circumstances, that it 
must be agreed upon by the parties them¬ 
selves. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Illustrate, in your own language, what you mean 
by interest. Give an example. 

2. Show by an example, first, what you mean by pay¬ 
ing for use, and, second, what you mean by paying for 
risk. 

3. Suppose you had two houses, and you rented one 
for a dwelling-house, and the other for a house to keep 
gunpowder in; for which would you charge the great¬ 
est rent? Why? 


138 


QUESTIONS. 


4. Suppose a man was very much in need of 
money, why might you not charge him twice as much 
as another man, under the same circumstances? 

5. Why might I not circulate a report of the declara¬ 
tion of war, in order to fhise the interest of money, so 
that I might in a given case get more for it? 

6. Suppose I borrow money to build a house, at a 
given rate of interest, the house being the lender’s se¬ 
curity ; why might I not build a ship with it? 

7. Suppose I borrow money of a man, and promise 
to pay him to-morrow. If I pay him on the next day, 
is this strictly honest? 

8. If I owe money, and the laws do not oblige me 
to pay it, am I, or am I not, bound to pay it notwith¬ 
standing? 

9. Suppose I loan to a customer a chaise, which is like¬ 
ly to break down on his journey; is this honest? Why ? 

10. Suppose I hire a horse, and drive him so care¬ 
lessly that he is fairly liable to injury; is this hon¬ 
est? Why? 

11. Are people generally as careful of hired property 
as they are of their own? Is this honest? 

12. Suppose I hire a horse to go five miles, and drive 
him ten, and he is injured; who bears the loss? 

13. Suppose I hire a horse to drive in a chaise, and 
I use him in a plough, and he is injured; who bears 
the loss? 

14. If I hire a house for a year, and a new street is 
opened, which renders it of twice the value, before the 
close of the year, am I obliged to pay more rent? 

15. Suppose you wanted to have your house insured, 
what would you do? 

16. Suppose you knew your house was likely to be 
struck with lightning, ought you to mention it when 
you make application for insurance ? 


OF EXCHANGES. 


139 


17. After it is insured, if you were to be careless 
about fire, would it be right? Why? 

SECTION V. 

OF EXCHANGES WHEN THE EQUIVALENT IS IMMATE¬ 
RIAL. 

The case to be considered here is that of 
master and servant. 

One man frequently needs the services of 
another. Sometimes he needs assistance in 
performing the labors of the family ; at others 
he needs workmen to perform the labor of his 
trade, or occupation. Here a given kind of 
labor is to be done, and for this labor he pro¬ 
poses to give an equivalent. The exchange 
agreed upon is, a given amount of service, on 
the one hand, and a given amount of money, 
on the other. There is dishonesty, if either 
party either demand an equivalent from the 
other, or if, after the equivalent has been agreed 
upon, he do not fulfil his engagement. 

1. The master is bound to allow to the ser¬ 
vant a fair remuneration for his labor. As, 
however, this would vary so much in different 
instances, it is generally agreed upon before¬ 
hand, by the parties. In this case, as in 
every other case of barter, both parties are 
forbidden to take advantage of the hopes or 
fears of each other; or to accomplish the ex- 


140 


EXCHANGES. 


change by means of any influence unduly 
exerted. 

Whatever the master has agreed to pay, he 
is bound to pay fully, and punctually. There 
can be no more aggravated case of injustice 
than to delay payment to the poor and labo¬ 
rious, because they have not the means of en¬ 
forcing payment by law, or by the excitation 
of public opinion. 

Thus saith the Scriptures, “ the hire of your 
laborers, who have reaped your fields, that is 
j kept back by fraud, crieth ; and the cry is come 
into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth.” 

And, lastly, the master is bound to require 
of the servant no more service than that which 
is, by both parties, understood in the agree¬ 
ment ; and is bound to have respect to the 
bodily health and moral wants of those under 
his charge. It is wicked to urge human beings 
to labor beyond their power of physical ability, 
or to such an extent as to deprive them of the 
means of intellectual and religious improve¬ 
ment. Yet it is to be -remarked, that when 
such engagements are made, they as frequently 
proceed from the avarice of the employed as 
of the employer. The blame, in this case, is 
to be shared between them. 

2. On the other hand, the servant is bound 
to perform the service which he agreed to 


EXCHANGES. 


141 


render, according to the spirit of the agree¬ 
ment. If he employ that time which he has 
agreed to spend for the benefit of another, in 
idleness, in useless conversation, or in any¬ 
thing else than the duty required, he is guilty 
of dishonesty, as much as if he stole. It is as 
fraudulent for him to receive money for what 
he has not done, as for the master to keep back 
the money which the other has fairly earned. 

And, again, as the master employs, not only 
the body, but the mind and intelligence of the 
servant, the servant is bound to use his best 
discretion to promote the interest of his mas¬ 
ter. If, for the want of this, the property of 
his employer be injured, it is injured in viola¬ 
tion of the contract, and the servant ought to 
bear the loss. 

Such are the principles which should regu¬ 
late the fulfilment of contracts of this sort, so 
far as simple equity is concerned. The benev¬ 
olence of the gospel would, however, teach 
us something more. It would teach both 
parties to regard each other as placed in a 
situation in which a special opportunity is of¬ 
fered for rendering good offices, and manifest¬ 
ing kindness. This would lead the master to 
render the condition of the servant as happy 
as it was in his power, without regard to the 
mere articles of the agreement; and the ser- 


142 


QUESTIONS. 


vant to watch over the interests committed to 
his charge, with a care which could not be 
specified in the terms of any contract. Thus, 
there would be on both sides the constant recip¬ 
rocation of gratuitous kindness and good 
will; by which the character of both would be 
elevated, and the happiness of both greatly 
promoted. 

There exists in this country a very useless 
dislike to the terms of master and servant. 
Every one who hires the services of another is, 
in so far, a master; and every one whose ser¬ 
vices are hired is, in so far, a servant. Every 
oAe is therefore, in various respects, both 
master and servant. If I employ a man to 
make a pair of shoes he is my servant; if he 
employ me to teach his son I am his servant. 
Why then should the terms which designate 
this relation be odious ? The honor is not in 
being either master or servant, but in perform¬ 
ing the duties of either relation well; and the 
dishonor belongs to neither, but to the neglect 
of the duties which the nature of the station 
imposes. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Why does every man need servants, at some time 
or other? 

2. What principle should govern both parties, in 
making an agreement? 


OF CHARACTER. 


143 


3. Ought we to be more or to be less careful, in ful¬ 
filling our engagements with the poor, than with the 
rich? Why? 

4. Suppose an employer engages a man to labor for 
him eighteen hours a day, and the man insists upon 
being so employed; who is to blame? 

5. Suppose a workman labors but six hours a day; 
has he a right to demand as much as if he labored ten 
hours ? 

6. Suppose you were employed by the day, and were 
sent on an errand, and you stopped on the corner of 
every street to talk over the news; would this be hon¬ 
est ? Why ? 

7. What would your services be worth, if you spent 
all your time thus ? 

8. Suppose you were employed to make a table, and 
by carelessness and negligence spoiled it; who ought 
to bear the loss? 

9. Ought any principles to influence us,in the relation 
of master and servant, besides the terms of the contract ? 

10. Is there anything honorable in being a master, 
or dishonorable in being a servant? 

11. For what cause ought we to respect men? 


CHAPTER IV. 

OF CHARACTER. 

When we are asked what is the character 
of another we give our opinion of his present 
state, as it regards mind, acquisitions, capaci¬ 
ties, moral principles, and moral habits. 


144 


OF CHARACTER. 


This we call the character of the man. We 
say that he has such or such a talent, such or 
such principles, and such or such defects or 
excellences. 

Now, it is manifest that a good character is 
the most valuable of all our possessions. It is 
the source of all our present happiness ; and 
the only ground of reasonable hope for our 
happiness in the future. 

Hence, reason would teach us that the great¬ 
est benefit which we could confer upon another 
would be to improve his character, that is, to 
render him better; and the greatest injury 
which we could inflict upon him would be to 
injure his character, that is, to make him 
worse. 

The law of reciprocity forbids us on any pre¬ 
tence, or in any manner, to injure the character 
of another, that is, to make him worse. 

The most solemn threatenings in the Scrip¬ 
tures are uttered against those who shall be 
the means of corrupting others. “ Whosoever 
shall break the least of these commandments, 
and shall teach men so, shall be called the least 
in the kingdom of heaven.” In the Old Tes¬ 
tament, Jeroboam is mentioned as atrociously 
wicked, because “ lie made Israel to sin. ,y 
Where God is represented as executing his 
fiercest displeasure upon Babylon, it is because 


OF CHARACTER. 


145 


she “ did corrupt the earth with her wickedness/’ 
The woe denounced against the Pharisees, in 
the time of our Lord, is “ because ye compass 
sea and land to make one proselyte; and 
when he is made, ye make him twofold more 
the child of hell than yourselves.” 

We may injure the character of others in 
several ways. 

1. By weakening their moral restraints. 
Religious principle is the greatest restraint 
upon vice. He who does anything to dimin¬ 
ish the power of religious motives, by speak¬ 
ing lightly of religion, by profanity, or sab¬ 
bath breaking, by ridiculing the Scriptures, or 
their doctrines, or by encouraging disobedience 
to parents, is guilty of this crime. 

2. By exciting the wicked passions of men. 
He is guilty of this crime, who publishes or 
circulates wicked books or pictures, or who, by 
wicked conversation, fills the mind with wicked 
thoughts. The same is true of him who 
teases others, and excites their anger, or pro¬ 
vokes them to malice and revenge ; for, in this 
manner, we render others bad tempered and 
vicious. 

3. Another mode in which we are guilty of 
this crime is by ministering to the wicked ap¬ 
petites of men. Those are thus guilty, who 
teach others to drink spirituous liquors, or 

13 


146 


QUESTIONS. 


entice them to drink, or set drink before them. 
It is melancholy to pass through the streets of 
a large city, and observe how many persons 
are obtaining their livelihood by pampering 
the appetites of the young, and cultivating 
those habits which must lead, in the end, to 
profligacy and vice. 

We are then always to remember that no 
words or actions, or conduct or writing, or oc¬ 
cupation can be innocent, of which the natural 
tendency is to render others worse, that is, to 
injure their moral character. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Explain, in your own language, what you mean 
by the character of a man. 

2. What is the benefit of a good character ? What 
the evil of a bad character ? 

3. What influence can we exert on the character of 
others ? Explain how. 

4. What influence ought we to exert upon the char¬ 
acter of others ? Give an example. 

5. Does God hold us accountable for the influence 
which we exert on the character of others ? 

6. Suppose a boy should persuade another to break 
the sabbath; of what crimes would he be guilty? 

7. Suppose a boy should teach another to speak dis¬ 
respectfully of Ills parents; of what crimes would he be 
guilty? 

8. Suppose a boy should teach another to swear; of 
what crimes would he be guilty? 

9. Suppose a boy should tease and plague another, so 


OP REPUTATION. 


147 


as to make him angry; of what crime would he be 
guilty ? 

10. Suppose you should make a child drunk, to have 
some fun with him; of what crime would you he guilty ? 

11. Suppose you, by example or conversation, lead 
any one to do wrong; of what crime are you guilty ? 

12. How do we know that God will punish such con¬ 
duct most severely ? 

13. If we find that our companions wish to persuade 
us to do wrong, what ought we to do? 

14. Who are our worst enemies? 


CHAPTER V. 

OF REPUTATION. 

We have, in the preceding chapters, spoken 
of character. It is obvious that character, 
of what sort soever it be, produces, as a 
natural result, a certain general opinion respect¬ 
ing us among men. Thus, if a man always 
tells the truth, men will form the opinion of 
him that he will tell the truth; that is, he will 
have a reputation for veracity. If he be always 
honest, men will have a corresponding opin 
ion of him; that is, he will have a reputation 
for integrity, and so of any other case. 

Now this estimation in which a man is held 
is a very valuable possession. The prospects 
of every man depend upon his reputation. 



148 


OF REPUTATION. 


Who will give employment to another if he has 
the reputation of being a liar and a thief? 
And hence to injure the reputation of another 
is to inflict upon him the greatest injustice, and 
to do him the most irreparable harm. We 
have no more right to take away the estimation 
in which a man is held, than to take away his 
money. Nor have we a right to do this, even 
if he have more estimation than he deserves. 
Suppose a man have come by his money dis¬ 
honestly, this gives us no right to pick his 
pockets, or to interfere with him in any way, 
unless we are authorized by law to do so. So, 
we have no right to diminish the reputation of 
another, even if it be more than he deserves, 
unless there be a definite and just cause for so 
doing. 

The precepts of the Bible on this subject 
are such as these : u Judge not, that ye be not 
judged ; for with what measure ye mete, it shall 
be measured to you again.” “And why be- 
holdest thou the mote that is in thy brother’s 
eye, and considerest not the beam that is in 
' thine own eye ? ” 

“ Let all bitterness and wrath and clamor 
and evil speaking be put away from you.” 

“ Speak evil of no man” “ Speak not evil 
one of another.” 

“He that will love life and see good days, 
let him keep his tongue from evil.” 


OF REPUTATION. 


149 


We shall proceed to consider, first, the cases 
in which we are forbidden, and, second, those 
in which we are not forbidden to utter injurious 
truth. I do not consider the cases in which 
we utter injurious falsehood, because here, the 
crime of lying, which will be treated of in 
another place, is added to that of slander. 

1. We are forbidden to give publicity to the 
bad actioyis of men, without adequate cause. 
We always do this without adequate cause, 
when we tell of the evil deeds of others with¬ 
out any cause , or for the sake of gratifying 
idle curiosity , or from love of talking , or from 
envy, or malice , or revenge . 

2. We are forbidden to utter general con¬ 
clusions respecting the characters of men, 
founded on particular bad actions which they 
may be known to have committed. Who 
would wish his whole reputation to be decided 
by a single action? A single illiberal act no 
more proves a man *to be covetous, than a 
single charitable act proves him to be benevo¬ 
lent. How unjust, therefore, to proclaim a man 
destitute of all virtue on account of one failure 
in virtue! 

3. We are forbidden to judge, that is, to 
assign unnecessarily bad motives to the ac¬ 
tions of men. I say unnecessarily bad motives, 
for some actions are such, that to presume a 

13* 


150 


OF REPUTATION. 


good motive is impossible. Yet, even here, it 
is safe simply to state the fact, when it is 
necessary to state it, and leave every one to 
judge of the motive, for himself. 

This rule would teach us, first, to presume 
no unworthy motive where the action is sus¬ 
ceptible of an innocent one; and secondly, 
never to ascribe to an action which we confess 
to be good, any other motive than that from 
which it professes to proceed. The reasonable¬ 
ness of this is obvious if we apply it to our own 
case. Is there any other rule by which we would 
wish our own actions to be estimated ? 

4. We are forbidden to lessen the estimation 
in which others are held, by mimicry, ridi¬ 
cule, calling of names, giving opprobrious 
epithets, or any other means by which they are 
brought into contempt. It is no excuse to say 
we do not mean any harm. W6 know that it 
does harm , and this is enough to render us 
guilty. Both-old and young persons would 
converse very differently, if they were to 
remember the saying of Scripture, by thy 
words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words 
shalt thou be condemned ; and that for every 
idle word that men speak, they shall give 
an account at the day of judgment. It is well 
said by Bishop Wilson, “ We should never 
hear with pleasure, and never repeat, such 


OF REPUTATION. 


151 


things as may dishonor God, hurt our own 
character, or injure our neighbor/’ 

We come next to speak of the cases in which 
we are not forbidden to speak injurious truth 
of our neighbor. These are, 

1. To promote the ends of public justice. 
He who conceals a crime against society 
renders himself a party to the offence. We 
are bound, here, to speak of it to the proper 
civil officer, in order that the offender may be 
brought to trial and punishment. 

2. To protect the innocent. When we know 
of certain facts in a man’s history, which, if 
known to a third person, would protect the lat¬ 
ter from important injury, it is our duty to put 
such a person on his guard. What is required 
here is, that I assert what I know to be the fact, 
and this only; and that I do it for the purpose 
specified. 

3. For the good of the offender himself. 
When we know of the evil actions of another, 
and there is some other person, as for instance, 
a parent or guardian, who is ignorant of them, 
but who might by control or advice be the 
means of reforming the offender, it is our duty 
always to give the necessary information. 
This is the greatest kindness that can be shown 
to both parties, and it is a kindness, for the 
want of which, multitudes of children are 


152 


QUESTIONS. 


ruined. There can be no greater act of friend¬ 
ship, and none for which a parent should be 
more grateful, than for that confidence which 
would put him in possession of any knowledge 
of this sort, which could be of advantage to 
his child. 

4. Though we may not be at liberty to make 
public the evil actions of others, we are under 
no obligations to act towards the offender as 
though he were innocent. If the providence 
of God have put this knowledge in our pos¬ 
session, we are at liberty to use it each one 
for himself. We may and ought to shun the 
company of a wicked man, although we are 
the only persons who know of his crime. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the difference between character and rep¬ 
utation? Give an example. 

2. Give an example, to show the value of a good rep¬ 
utation, and the injury of a bad one. 

3. Explain, in your own language, why a man’s rep¬ 
utation is as much his own, as his property. 

4. Why should not two persons sit down together, 
and talk over all the evil they know of respecting their 
neighbors ? 

5. Suppose I know a man in a single instance to 
have been in a passion; have I right to conclude that 
he is passionate? Why? 

6. Have I a right to publish that he is a passionate 
man ? Have I a right to deny him any other good qual¬ 
ity, supposing he be really passionate? 


QUESTIONS. 


153 


7 . Suppose I know a man to be liberal; have I a right 
to say that he does it from ostentation ? 

8. Suppose a man refuses me charity; have I right 
to say that he does it from covetousness? Why? 

9. What harm is there in mimicking and making 
sport of others, whether present or absent ? 

10. Suppose I know that a man has stolen a horse; 
have I a right to keep it a secret? 

11. Suppose I know a man to violate any important 
law of society; am I obliged to keep it a secret? 

12. If I speak of it at all, to whom am I bound to 
tell it ? 

13. Suppose I know a man to be dishonest, and could 
prove it, and he were about to form a copartnership with 
a friend of mine, whom I knew he would cheat, if he 
could; what would be by duty in such a case ? 

14. Suppose I told the facts to my friend, ought I to 
tell them to everybody? 

15. What would distinguish such a case from slander ? 

16. Suppose I knew a child to swear, or lie, or steal, 
or use bad language ; would it be slander for me to in¬ 
form his parents of his conduct, if I supposed they did 
not know of it? 

17. Would it be proper for me to spread it about, 
and tell other persons of it ? 

18. When we make known the evil actions of others, 
what is the motive which must govern us, in order to 
render our conduct innocent ? 

19. If we know a person to be wicked, though we 
may not talk about it, is there anything elso we are 
bound to do? 


.154 


OF VERACITY. 


CHAPTER VI. 

OF VERACITY. 

Veracity consists in telling the truth, with 
the intention to do so. 

Telling the truth may have respect to some¬ 
thing which we assert to have been done, or to 
be now doing; as when we assert that it 
rained yesterday, or that it rains now; or it 
may have respect to something which we de¬ 
clare we intend to do; as when we promise 
that we will give a person a dollar to-morrow. 

The intention is always to be taken into 
view when we speak of the moral guilt or inno¬ 
cence o£ an assertion. If a person honestly 
means to tell the truth, he is innocent of the 
crime of lying, though he may be in error. If 
he mean to deceive, he is guilty, even although 
what he utters may be in fact true. 

Veracity will therefore be considered under 
two heads. 1. Assertions. 2. Promises. 

SECTION I. 

OP ASSERTIONS. 

The law of veracity requires in this respect, 
that when we make an assertion respecting 
any fact we convey to another person precisely 


OF VERACITY. 


155 


the idea which exists in our own minds; in 
other words, that we state the fact just as we 
believe it to have existed. 

The Scripture precepts on this subject are 
such as the following: 

Ex. xx. 16. Thou shalt not bear false wit¬ 
ness against thy neighbor. 

Prov. vi. 16. Lying lips are an abomina¬ 
tion to the Lord. 

Ps. xxxiv. 13. Keep thy tongue from evil, 
and thy lips that they speak no guile. 

John viii. 44. Those that speak lies are 
called “ children of the devil; ” that is,follow¬ 
ers, or imitators of the actions of the devil. 

Pev. xxi. 8. All liars shall have their por¬ 
tion in the lake that burneth with fire and 
brimstone. 

27. There shall in no wise enter therein 
(into heaven) anything that maketh a lie. 

As illustrations of the indignation of God 
against the sin of lying, see the case of Gehazi. 
2 Kings, v. 20—7. And of Ananias and 
Sapphira. Acts v. 

The law of veracity forbids, therefore, 

1. The utterance as truths of what we know^ 
to be false. This is always the case when we 
speak under any circumstances with the inten¬ 
tion to deceive. 

2. Uttering as truth what we do not know 


156 


OF VERACITY. 


to be true. When we utter anything as truth 
which we do not know to be true, we do not 
convey to another 4he impression which exists 
in our mind ; that is, we speak falsely. It is a 
foolish subterfuge to say, we did not,know but 
what it was true; if this was all we knew about 
it, we should have said so, and not convej' to 
another exactly the contrary impression. 

But, it will be said, are we never to utter any¬ 
thing but what we know to be true; are we 
never to give an opinion ? Doubtless we may ; 
but then it must be given as an opinion, and 
not as the truth. 

3. Uttering what may be true, but uttering 
it in such a manner, or under such circum¬ 
stances, as shall convey a false impression 
to others. 

We may do this in several ways; as, for 
instance, 

1. By exaggerating some of the circum¬ 
stances. 

2. By extenuating some of the circumstances. 

3. By exaggerating some of the circum¬ 
stances, and extenuating others. 

4. By stating the facts as they existed, but 
combining them in such a manner as to leave a 
false impression upon the hearer. If I say, A 
entered B’s room, and immediately after he 
left it, B discovered that a watch had been 


OF VERACITY. 


157 


stolen, I naturally leave the impression that A 
was the thief. If I say this with the intention 
of producing a false impression, though I do 
not assert anything but the fact, I am guilty of 
falsehood. 

As the crime of falsehood consists in making 
intentionally a false impression upon another, 
we may incur as much guilt by the tones of 
the voice, look of the eye, a motion of the 
head, or a gesture of the body, as by words. 
If a traveller ask me which road leads to Bos¬ 
ton, and I point to him in the wrong direction, 
it is as much a lie as though I conveyed the 
same impression by words. 

6. This law applies to our intercourse with 
men under all the relations of life. It forbids 
parents to lie to children, and children to lie to 
parents, instructors to pupils, and pupils to in¬ 
structors, the old to the young, and the young 
to each other, buyers to sellers, and sellers to 
buyers, politicians to their own party, and to 
the opposite party ; in a word, the obligation 
is universal and cannot be set aside by any, 
either of the natural or artificial relations in 
which men may stand to each other. 

It is no excuse for falsehood to say that the 
person to whom we were speaking has no right 
to know the truth. This is a reason why 
we should not tell the truth , but it is no reason 


158 


OF VERACITY. 


why we should tell a falsehood . If a man has 
no just claim upon us, this is a reason why we 
should not pay his demand, it is no reason at 
all why we should cheat him. 

The importance of cultivating a strict regard 
for truth is absolutely incalculable. Hence 
the evil of speaking falsely in jest, or of ex¬ 
aggerating the facts of a story, for the sake of 
amusement or effect. He who allows himself 
to lie in jest, will soon find himself lying in 
earnest, and will in the end probably become 
an habitual liar. Let every one, therefore, in 
the most trivial cases, observe the most strict 
and scrupulous veracity, and he will find that 
by the cultivation of no one virtue he will gain 
more moral power over himself, or gain more 
control over the actions of others. 

If such be the fact, we see how wicked it 
must be to teach others to lie. This is some¬ 
times done by parents and nurses, who tell 
stories to frighten children, for the sake of ac¬ 
complishing some momentary purpose. It is 
also done by those who direct their children or 
servants to tell their visitors that they are not 
at home, when they are at home, but do not 
wish to be interrupted. The case is the same, 
when merchants direct their clerks to assure a 
customer that their goods were bought for one 
price, when they were bought for another. 


QUESTIONS. 


159 




How can such persons answer to God for the 
ruin which they are preparing for those com¬ 
mitted to their charge ? And how can they ex¬ 
pect that the truth will be told to them by 
those whom they have deliberately taught to 
lie? 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Give an example of what you mean by telling the 
truth. 

2. Give an example of a 'person’s telling what was 
not true, and yet not be guilty of lying. 

3. Give an example of a person’s telling what was 
true, and yet be guilty of lying. 

4. Why should veracity be divided into assertions 
and promises? 

5. How shall we know, when we make an assertion, 
that we are innocent of the guilt of lying? 

6. Eepeat the case of Geliazi in your own language. 

7. Eepeat the case of Ananias and Sapphira. 

8. What do we learn from these cases ? 

9. Can we intentionally deceive another without 
being guilty of falsehood? 

10. Why is it falsehood to tell a thing, of which we 
do not know but it is true ? Give an example of this 
form of falsehood. 

11. Give an example of a falsehood by exaggeration. 

12. Give an example of a falsehood by extenuation. 

13. Give an example of both of these combined. 

14. Give an example of facts, told as they existed, 
but so combined that they produce the impression of 
a falsehood. 

15. Give an example of a lie where not a word is 
spoken. 


160 


PROMISES AND CONTRACTS. 


16. Suppose several boys in a school should agree 
to lie to an instructor; would this be as wicked as for 
the instructor to lie to his pupils ? 

17. Does it make a lie any better, for several persons 
to agree together to tell it ? 

18. Does a lie become less guilty because people get 
in the habit of lying ? 

19. Is it any harm to lie in jest? What is the conse¬ 
quence of so doing ? 

20. Suppose any person should command you to tell 
a lie; ought you to do it? 

21. Suppose any person should command you to tell 
a lie, and you should do it; would the command of 
another excuse you in the sight of God? 

SECTION II. 

OF PROMISES AND CONTRACTS. 

1. Of promises. 

A promise is the expression of our intention, 
in such a manner as voluntarily to create an 
expectation on the part of another. 

The law of veracity demands that we ex¬ 
press the intention exactly as it exists in our 
own minds. We either in fact have the inten¬ 
tion, or we have it not; and we are no more 
at liberty to lie about this fact than about any 
other. 

Having expressed this intention in such 
manner as to create an expectation on the part 
of another, we are under obligation to fulfil it. 


PROMISES AND CONTRACTS. 


161 


In other words, a promise is binding, in the 
sense in which the promiser knows that the 
promisee receives it; that is, we are bound to 
fulfil the expectations which we have volun¬ 
tarily created. 

Promises are not binding, therefore, in the 
way that the promiser means them to be re¬ 
ceived, for he might mean one thing and say 
another ; nor in the way that the promisee un¬ 
derstands them, for then there would be no 
limit to the extravagant expectations of men. 
The obligation consists in having voluntarily 
created expectation, and by this expectation it 
is that we are bound. 

Hence, as in the case of assertions, we may 
promise by actions, or gestures, or looks, as 
much as by words. He who, at an auction, 
nods to an auctioneer, when that nod is under¬ 
stood to signify a bid, is as much bound as 
though he made a bid by words. The case is 
the same when in any other way, or by any 
course of action, we voluntarily excite expec¬ 
tation. 

It may be proper here, however, to mention 
a few of the cases in which promises are not 
binding. 

1. When the performance is impossible. We 
cannot be under obligation to do what turns 
out to be absolutely out of our power. If, 


162 PROMISES AND CONTRACTS. 

however, we know of this impossibility before¬ 
hand, we are guilty of lying and fraud, and are 
bound to make good the disappointment to the 
other party. 

2. When the performance is unlawful. We 
cannot be under obligation to do what we are 
also under a contrary obligation to leave undone. 
If, however, we know or might have known of 
the unlawfulness before the promise, and the 
other party did not know it, we are guilty of 
deception, and are bound to make good the dis¬ 
appointment. When the other party knew of 
the unlawfulness of the act, we are not thus 
bound. If I agree to unite with another per¬ 
son in a robbery, I am bound to break my prom¬ 
ise, but surely I am under no obligations to pay 
him the amount of what he might have gained 
by the crime. 

3. Promises are not binding when no expec¬ 
tation is voluntarily excited. If A inform B 
that he shall give a horse to C, not intending 
that B shall communicate it, and if B commu¬ 
nicate it without A’s knowledge, A is not bound. 
If A desire B to inform C of it, he is as much 
bound as though he communicated it himself. 

4. Promises are not binding when they are 
known by both parties to proceed upon a condi¬ 
tion which subsequently turns out to be false. 
If I promise a beggar money on the ground of 


PROMISES AND CONTRACTS. 


163 


his story, which turns out to be a fabrication, I 
am not bound by such promise. 

These are the principal cases in which prom¬ 
ises are not binding. The inconvenience which 
may result from fulfilling a promise is not a re¬ 
lease. No man ever need promise unless he 
please, but having once promised, he is boftnd, 
unless he be morally liberated, until the prom¬ 
ise is fulfilled. Hence we should be extremely 
cautious in making promises, and we should 
never make them without allowing ourselves 
sufficient opportunity for reflection. And I 
believe it will generally be found that those who 
are most careful in promising, are most con¬ 
scientious in performing their promises. 

II. Of contracts. 

A contract is a mutual promise ; that is, we 
promise to do one thing on the condition that 
another party does something else. 

The rules for the interpretation of a contract, 
the reasons for its obligatoriness, and the cases 
of exception, are the same as those of promises ; 
the only difference is, that in this case there is 
a specific condition annexed, by which the obli¬ 
gations of the parties are limited and defined. 

Hence, after a contract is made, so long as 
the other party performs his part, we are under 
obligation to perform our part. But if either 
party fail, the other is, by the failure of a con- 


164 


PROMISES AND CONTRACTS. 


dition necessary to the contract, liberated. 
And still more, the party which fails, is ordi¬ 
narily under obligation to make good the dam¬ 
ages which may have been suffered by his 
failure. 

This is the general rule. There is, however, 
an exception, which it is important to notice. 
There are some contracts entered into, in which 
the terms of the engagement are fixed by the 
law of our Creator. Such, for instance, are the 
contracts of marriage, and that of civil society. 
In such cases either party is not liberated by 
every failure of the other party, but only for 
such cause as God has specified. 

It is proper to remark that the obligation to 
veracity is the same, whether the engagement 
be entered into between individuals or societies. 
The latter are as much obliged to fulfil their 
promises as the former. A civilized people are 
as much bound by their treaties with an un¬ 
civilized as with a civilized people, or as much 
as an individual is bound by his contract with 
an individual. Every other course of conduct, 
under what pretences soever it may be dis¬ 
guised, or by what power soever upheld, is as 
mean and contemptible, as it is shameless and 
wicked. 


QUESTIONS. 


165 


QUESTIONS. 

1. Give an example of a promise, and explain what 
it contains. 

2. What do you mean, by being bound to fulfil a 

promise ? * 

3. A general, besieging a city, promised the garri¬ 
son that, if they would surrender, no blood should be 
shed. They surrendered, and he buried them all alive. 
Did life keep his promise? Why? 

4. Herod promised the daughter of Herodias that 
he would give her whatsoever she would ask. Was he 
bound by his promise to give her the head of John the 
Baptist? Why? 

5. Suppose I ask a boy who took another boy’s knife, 
whether he did it, and he shakes his head in such a 
way that he means me to understand by it that he did 
not; is this a lie? Why? 

6. Suppose I promise to visit a man, and before the 
time come have the misfortune to break my leg; am I 
guilty of falsehood for not going? Why? 

7. I have mentioned above the case of Herod. Sup¬ 
pose that he had actually promised to Herodias the head 
of John the Baptist; would he have been bound to ful¬ 
fil that promise? 

8. Suppose several persons combine to do an unlaw¬ 
ful act; are they any more under obligation to do it 
than if they had not combined ? Why ? 

9. If a man told you, without leave, that your father 
was going to give you a dollar, would your father be 
obliged to do it ? 

10. If a pl^sician has promised to visit a patient, 
would he be released from his promise by a storm, or 
by friends calling to see him? Why? 


166 


DUTY OF PARENTS. 


11. Who are most likely to break their promises ? 

12. Give an instance of a contract. 

13. Suppose I promise to take you to ride, if you are 
ready at twelve o’clock to-morrow; if you are not ready 
till a quarter after twelve, am I bound by my contract? 

14. Suppose the United States should make two trea¬ 
ties, one with the Indians, and the other with Great 
Britain; which would be the most obligatory? 

15. Suppose I make two contracts, one with my 
neighbor, and the other with the government;' which 
is the most obligatory? 


CHAPTER VII. 

THE DUTIES AND RIGHTS OF PARENTS. 

The design of the parental relation may 
easily be seen from a few obvious facts. 

1. The child comes into the world entirely 
unprepared for the duties which it must in sub¬ 
sequent life discharge. It must, in a few 
years, support itself; it needs therefore physical 
strength, but it is now helpless; it is sur¬ 
rounded with blessings which can be obtained 
only by intelligence, but it is now ignorant; it 
will be encompassed by temptations, which can 
only be resisted by moral culture, but its moral 
principles are, as yet, unformed. To illustrate 
all this by a single case. Take any of the arts 
or professions, and consider how would an 


DUTY OF PARENTS. 


167 


infant of a week or of a year old discharge it, 
or how he could support himself from starvation 
by the exercise of it. 

It is manifest, then, that the child needs 
sustenance during infancy, and a process of 
cultivation by which he may be trained for the 
duties of subsequent life. We have all en¬ 
joyed this support and cultivation, or we should 
not now be alive. It is our duty to exercise 
the same care over those that come after us. 

Now the condition of the parent and child 
is adapted to precisely this state of things. 
The parent has strength, wisdom, experience, 
and a disposition to use these for the welfare, 
especially for the education of the child, and the 
child is weak, ignorant, inexperienced, and dis¬ 
posed by nature to rely on and to confide in the 
direction of the parent. 

Hence the duties of the parent may be mainly 
comprehended under the single word education ; 
and his rights extend to everything which is in 
any manner necessary to the discharge of this 
duty. 

The duties of parents include the following 
particulars: 

1. Support and maintenance. The parent is 
under obligation to feed and clothe his child, 
until, in the station of life which he fills, he is 
able, with suitable diligence, to support himself. 


168 


DUTY OF PARENTS. 


As to the expensiveness of this support, the 
parent must be the judge. It is unwise for a 
parent to maintain his children in habits of ex¬ 
pense either above or much below his own cir¬ 
cumstances. The parent is also the natural 
protector of his child; he is bound to guard 
him from harm, and shield him from oppression 
and-abuse. 

2. Physical education. Few are aware, until 
too late, of the importance of a healthy and 
vigorous bodily constitution. Such a constitu¬ 
tion can only be secured by exercise, temper¬ 
ance, and care in youth. It is the duty of the 
parent to pursue such a course of physical edu¬ 
cation as shall develop all the physical powers 
of the child ; to inure it to hardship and ren¬ 
der it patient of labor. The watchfulness nec¬ 
essary to this will rarely be exercised by any 
other person than a parent. 

3. Intellectual education. How greatly the 
happiness of an intellectual being depends upon 
mental education it is needless to observe. And 
that the foundation of all such education must 
be laid in youth is evident, since, when this 
season is past, the time of the individual is 
required to provide for his own support. 

Under this head I would remark that the 
parent is under obligation: 

1. So far as it is in his power to give a child 


DUTY OF PARENTS. 


169 


such an education as is suited tq his peculiar 
bias and capabilities. 

2. To select such instructors as will best ac¬ 
complish this result. 

3. To see that the instructor does his duty; 
and to encourage the child by manifesting such 
an interest in his studies as will stimulate him 
to all suitable effort. 

4. And if such be the duty of the parent, he 
is under obligation to take time to do it. He 
should remember that every man has time to do 
his duty. And he has no right to devote to 
business or to amusement those hours which 
God has set apart for the discharge of his duty 
as a parent. 

And here let me remark that a strange par¬ 
simony prevails among parents on this subject. 
They will deny themselves to accumulate prop¬ 
erty for their children, and at the same time 
will grudge a trifling expenditure for the sake 
of obtaining for them that education without 
which their possessions will be a very doubtful 
blessing. It seems by many persons to be 
taken for granted that all places of education 
are equally good, and that the only question to 
be decided is, which is the cheapest. And by 
a mere question of dollars, and frequently by 
that of cents, the intellectual cultivation and 
habits of the child are decided. 


170 


DUTY OF PARENTS. 


4. Moral education. 

The moral character of the man, and, of course, 
the eternal destiny of the individual, must de¬ 
pend, in no small degree, upon the moral train¬ 
ing of the child. This moral training, both by 
precept and example, it must receive at the 
hands of its parent. For the manner in which 
it is discharged God holds the parent account¬ 
able. It is therefore his duty : 

1. To teach the child his duties to God and 
to man, and to produce in its mind a perma¬ 
nent conviction of its moral responsibility. 
Specially is this to be done by instilling into 
the mind of the child the principles, precepts 
and motives of the Holy Scriptures. 

2. To eradicate, so far as possible, the vicious 
propensities of the child. He should watch the 
first appearances of pride, obstinacy, malice, 
envy, revenge, cruelty, anger, lying, and their 
kindred vices, and strive to extirpate them 
before they have gained firmness by age, or 
vigor by indulgence. 

3. To set before the child such an example as 
will tend to render his instructions in the high- 
est degree available. He whose example con¬ 
tradicts his precept must expect his children to 
neglect the precept and follow the example. 

4. Inasmuch as all our efforts in this as in 
every other case will be fruitless without the 


DUTY OF PARENTS. 


171 


blessing of God, a parent is under obligation to 
do all this in prayerful dependence on the divine 
assistance. He should pray with and pray for 
his children. 

5. As the character of the child depends 
greatly on his associations, the parent is bound 
to watch over these with unceasing care. He 
should suffer a child to form no intimacies, and 
place him in no situations, by which his moral 
character will be endangered. 

6. As the parent sustains to all his children 
the same relation, he is bound to conduct 
towards them all with the strictest justice and 
impartiality. 

II. The rights of parents. 

The rights of parents are commensurate with 
their duties. As they are responsible for the 
physical, intellectual, and moral education of 
their children, so they have over them all the 
right of physical, intellectual, and moral gov¬ 
ernment necessary for the discharge of this 
responsibility. 

The parent has of course aright to direct the 
expenses and the physical habits of his child ; 
the place and manner of his education, the kind 
of moral education which he shall receive ; the 
associations which he shall form ; and he has 
the right to use all reasonable means for pro¬ 
ducing in the child obedience to his will. He 


172 


DUTY OF PARENTS. 


is under obligation to use this power for the 
good of the child, according to the best of his 
judgment and ability. But, if he errs, there is 
no redress, as his authority is ultimate so long 
as it exists. 

These duties and rights, however, are not 
perpetual. 

The child becomes, in process of time, able 
to maintain itself, to direct its own mental pur¬ 
suits, and to decide for itself on its moral du¬ 
ties and obligations. Whenever this takes 
place in fact, the relation of parent and child 
ceases, so far as the responsibility of the parent 
is concerned. This time is fixed by law, at the 
period when the child becomes of age, or is 
twenty-one years old. It may, however, in fact 
arrive before, or be delayed after this time. 

The authority of instructors is an authority 
delegated by the parent, to whom, and not to 
the child, the instructor is responsible. Hence 
the relation between the parties is essentially 
that of parent and child. The instructor is the 
superior and the pupil is the inferior. The 
duties of the instructor are limited by the 
terms which he and the parent have mutually 
agreed upon. His rights are always commen¬ 
surate with his duties ; that is, he is invested 
with power to accomplish the purpose which 
has been committed to him. Within this limit 


QUESTIONS. 


173 


he has the right to command, and it is the duty 
of the pupil to obey. 


QUESTIONS. 

1. Explain, in your own language, why it is that a 
child needs the care and attention of a parent. 

2. Explain the circumstances which render a parent 
precisely adapted to supply the wants of the child. 

3. Explain, from these two considerations, what is, 
in general, the duty of a parent. 

4. Suppose children are abused, ought they to fight 
and quarrel? What ought they to do if they need 
protection ? 

5. Would it be kind in a parent to let a child grow 
up in idleness; to eat and drink what he pleased, and 
as much as he pleased, and never teach him to do any¬ 
thing by which to support himself? What would be 
the result of so doing? 

6. Would it be kind in a parent to let a child go to 
school or not, and study or not, just as he pleased? 
Why? 

7. What should we think of children who are dis¬ 
pleased when their parents require them to take exer¬ 
cise and to labor and study ? 

8. Has a parent a right to know how his child be¬ 
haves, and whether he is diligent and studious or not? 

9. Suppose an instructor should conceal such infor¬ 
mation from a parent; what ought we to think of him ? 

10. Which is of the most value, a good education, 
or a large fortune? Why? 

11. Would it be right for a parent to allow his child 
to grow up without any knowledge of his duties to 
God? Why? 

12- When the parents converse with them on these 


174 


DUTIES OF CHILDREN. 


subjects, children frequently feel restless and dis¬ 
pleased. What should we think of such children? 

13. Would it be kind in a parent to allow a child to 
grow up with a broken arm, and never try to have it 
healed? 

14. Which is the greatest calamity, a broken arm, 
or a vicious and malicious temper, or the habit of lying 
and stealing? Why? 

15. Would it be kind for a parent to allow his child 
to go among children who had some infectious disease ? 
Why? 

16. Which is worse, to take an infectious disease, or 
to learn bad and wicked habits? 

17. If parents are under obligation to God to take 
such care of their children, and if they have such a right 
over them, what is the duty of children? 

18. Suppose a child thinks that his parent is too 
strict; is this any reason why he should not obey him ? 
Why? 

19. Suppose parents and children differ on these 
subjects ; who is most likely to be correct; and which 
has the right to govern ? 

20. Suppose one brother was twenty years old, and 
another only three years old; which would know best 
about what was suitable for the younger? 

21. Explain the nature of the authority of the 
instructor over the pupil. 

—i— 

CHAPTER VIII. 

THE DUTIES AND RIGHTS OF CHILDREN. 

The duties of children may be comprised 
under the following particulars. 

1. Obedience. By this I mean that the child 



DUTIES OF CHILDREN. 


175 


is under obligation to conform to the will of 
the parent because it is his will; aside from the 
consideration that what is required may seem 
to the child wisest or best. The only limita¬ 
tion here is that of conscience. A child must 
obey God rather than his parent. Even here, 
however, he has no right to resist. He must 
obey God and suffer meekly the consequences. 

2. Children are bound to reverence , or, as the 
Scriptures express it, to honor their parents. 
By reverence I mean that conduct and those 
feelings which are due from an inferior to a 
superior. The child is bound to show respect 
and honor to his parents, such as he would 
show to no other persons. Nor is there in this 
anything degrading, but everything honorable. 
There is nothing more seemly, more ennobling, 
and more dignified, than profound filial respect. 
Napoleon, at the summit of his power, never 
appeared so truly exalted as in the deference 
which he paid to his mother. The same princi¬ 
ples would teach us universal respect for old 
age. 

3. Filial affection, or the affection due from a 
child to its parents, because they are his parents. 
A parent may be entitled to our love because 
he is a man, or because he is a good man, but 
beside all this he is entitled to our special af¬ 
fection because he is a parent. This imposes 


176 


DUTIES OF CHILDREN. 


upon us the duty of always speaking of them 
with respect, seeking their happiness by all the 
means in our power, and of performing all this 
from love to them because they are our parents. 
This love will render such services not a bur¬ 
den, but a pleasure, under what circumstances 
soever it may be in our power to render them. 

4. It is the duty of the child whenever it is, 
by the providence of God, rendered necessary, 
to support its parents in old age. That man is 
guilty of monstrous ingratitude, who would 
not cheerfully deny himself of luxuries or con¬ 
veniences, in order to minister to the wants of 
his aged and needy parents. 

Nor is this merely confined to necessary sup¬ 
port. Where parents are not indigent there 
are various acts of kindness and attention and 
remembrance, which it is in the power of the 
child to perform, which may add greatly to their 
happiness, and soften the asperities of advanc¬ 
ing old age. These opportunities for the man¬ 
ifestation of filial affection will be gladly sought 
for by a thoughtful, benevolent and obedient 
child. 

The precepts of the holy Scriptures in regard 
to this duty are frequent and impressive. I 
subjoin a few as examples. 

Ex. xx. 12. Honor thy father and thy 
mother, that thy days may be long in the land 


DUTIES OF CHILDREN. 


177 


which the Lord thy God giveth thee. This, as 
the Apostle Paul remarks, Eph. vi. 2, 3, is the 
only commandment in the decalogue to which 
a special promise is annexed. 

Prov. i. 8, 9. My son, keep the instruction 
of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy 
mother. They shall be an ornament of grace 
(that is, a graceful ornament) unto thy head, 
and chains about thy neck. 

Prov. xiii. 1. A wise son heareth his father’s 
instructions, but a scorner heareth not rebuke. 

Eph. vi. 1. Children, obey your parents in 
the Lord, for this is right. 

Col^lh 20. Children, obey your parents in dll 
things , for this is well pleasing unto the Lord. 

The displeasure of God is frequently de¬ 
nounced against those who violate his com¬ 
mand. 

Deut. xxvii. 16. Cursed be he that setteth 
light by his father or his mother; and all the 
people shall say, Amen. 

Prov. xv. 5. A fool despiseth his father’s 
instructions. 

Prov. xxx. 17. The eye that mocketh at his 
father and despiseth to obey his mother; the 
ravens of the valley shall pluck it out, and the 
young eagles shall eat it. That is, he shall 
perish by a violent death; he shall come to a 
miserable end. 


178 


DUTIES OF CHILDREN. 


From such passages as these we learn: 

1. That the holy Scriptures inculcate obedi¬ 
ence to parents as a religious duty; and that 
he who violates it is guilty of sin against God 
as well as against man. The Scriptures men¬ 
tion disobedience to parents as one of the of¬ 
fences for which God is most justly offended 
with men. 

2. That obedience to parents is no proof of 
meanness and servility, but that it is every way 
honorable and delightful. It is a graceful orna¬ 
ment; that is, it confers additional beautjr on 
what was before lovely. 

3. That the violation of this command ex¬ 
poses the transgressor to especial and peculiar 
judgments. And the experience of all ages 
has borne witness to the fact that disobedience 
to parents in youth is the common precursor to 
disgrace and misfortune in manhood and old age. 

The child has a right to expect that the 
parent will discharge to it the duties of which 
I have spoken in the preceding chapter, and 
that he will exercise his authority for its good 
to the best of his knowledge. If, however, he 
should fail, this is no excuse for filial disobedi¬ 
ence. The duties of the child to love and rev¬ 
erence and honor its parent remain as before, 
since they are unchangeably appointed by 
God. 


DUTIES OP CHILDREN. 


179 


OF THE DURATION OP THESE RIGHTS AND 
DUTIES. 

The child is under obligation to yield im¬ 
plicit obedience to the parent so long as he is 
in a state of pupilage; that is, so long as the 
parent is responsible for his conduct, and the 
child is dependent on his parent. When the 
child assumes the responsibility of the care of 
himself, the obligation of obedience ceases. 
But after this, a child can find no one whose 
advice will be so valuable, so disinterested, and 
generally so wise as his parents*. 

The obligation to respect and affection con¬ 
tinues through life, and rather increases than 
diminishes with advancing years. As the child 
grows older, he has it in his power to manifest 
more delicate respect, and more sympathizing 
affection; and as the parent grows older he 
feels more sensibly the need of attention, and 
finds his happiness to be more decidedly de¬ 
pendent upon it. This then is the time to ex¬ 
hibit our gratitude for the care which our 
parents have taken of us in our childhood and 
youth, and to manifest by our conduct our re¬ 
pentance for those acts of thoughtlessness and 
waywardness which formerly have grieved 
them. 

I mentioned in the last chapter that the rela¬ 
tion of the instructor to the pupil is essentially 


180 


QUESTIONS. 


parental. I here add, that the relation of the 
pupil to the instructor is essentially filial. That 
is, the pupil is bound to render obedience to 
his instructor on the same principles, and for 
the same reasons, as to his parent. It depends 
on the parent to decide how long this relation 
shall subsist, but so long as it subsists the duty 
of the pupil is obedience, respect and affec¬ 
tion. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Suppose a parent should tell you to go on an 
errand, and a stranger passing by should tell you not 
to go; which should you be under obligations to obey? 
Why? 

2. Suppose any one else should tell you to do what 
your parent had forbidden; whom ought you to obey? 
Why? 

3. Suppose your parent should command you to dis¬ 
obey God, what ought you to do? 

4. Do you ever hear children speak disrespectfully 
of their parents ? What command of God do they vio¬ 
late ? 

5. Suppose a child did what his parents commanded, 
but did not love them, nor really desire to please them; 
would this fulfil the command of God? 

6. If children really love their parents, will it be a 
hardship to obey them ? 

7. Explain, in your own language, how we ought to 
treat our parents when they grow old. 

8. Repeat,,in your own language, what the holy 
Scriptures inculcate respecting the duties of children. 

9. Suppose a child disobey his parents; how many 
sins does he commit? What are they? 


DUTY OF CITIZENS. 


181 


10. Which do you think is most honorable,— to treat 
our parents disrespectfully or respectfully ? 

11. Which of the sons of David was very disobedient 
and cruel to his father ? 

12. How was he punished for it? 

13. Do you remember a good man, who is spoken 
of in the Bible, who was punished for not bringing up 
his children well? 

14. Suppose a child was so unfortunate as to have a 
parent who did not do right; what would be the duty 
of a child to such a parent? 

15. Explain, in your own language, the manner in 
which you think pupils should behave to an instructor. 

16. When you see pupils behave thus, how do you 
feel towards them? How do other people feel? • 

17. If children wish to be beloved and respected, how 
should they behave towards their parents and in¬ 
structors ? 

—«— 

CHAPTER IX. 

DUTY OF CITIZENS. 

SECTION I. 

OF THE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT. 

Suppose twenty men and women, with their 
families, to be thrown together upon an unin¬ 
habited island. They would soon begin, from 
necessity, to build themselves houses and cul¬ 
tivate the soil, and catch for their use whatever 
animals might be found. Whatever each family 



182 


DUTY OF CITIZENS. 


thus builded, or raised, or caught, it would, of 
course, hold as its own. And if any one ex¬ 
changed with another, whatever he had secured 
by exchange would also be his own. In other 
words, each one would work for himself, and 
claim as his own whatever he had produced. 

They might thus live very happily for a long 
time,— at least, so long as every one acted in 
this manner—and they would need neither laws 
nor government. But suppose that any one 
should begin to act differently. Suppose any 
one should undertake to drive his neighbor’s 
family out of their house, or, after they had 
raised a crop of corn, should come and carry 
it into his own barn, and leave them to starve. 
And suppose another, seeing this was so easy 
a way of support, should undertake to do the 
same thing to another neighbor. The result 
would be,that if no one could enjoy the fruit 
of his labor, no one would work, and they would 
either starve, or else they would go away and 
live alone, and thus be exposed to the incon¬ 
veniences of always living in the wilderness. 

Or suppose another case. Suppose that the 
man who was turned out of his house deter¬ 
mined upon having his revenge, and therefore 
set fire to the house of his oppressor. Here 
would be two families turned out of their houses 
and left destitute. These two families might, 


DUTY OF CITIZENS. 


183 


on the same principles, go on to turn out of their 
possessions two others, who might f>avenge 
themselves by two more fires, and thus it would 
go on, until all the houses and property were 
destroyed, and the whole settlement would 
very soon perish. p 

Now it is clear that this would never do. 
There must be a stop put to such proceedings, 
and the only way would be to stop it at the 
beginning. The whole community would have 
to unite against the first robber, and oblige him 
to return the property which he had stolen, 
and to agree together that they would always 
do so to any one who should steal again. And 
if this did not stop it, they would have to agree 
to punish the robber in some such way as 
would oblige him to let alone everything that 
was his neighbor’s. This would be the first law 
of this little community. 

And now having made this law, and thus hav¬ 
ing undertaken to see that no one interfered 
with his neighbor’s property or rights, it is evi¬ 
dent that no one need undertake to avenge him¬ 
self, or to reclaim by force anything that had 
been taken from him. This community would 
therefore agree together that if any one was 
injured, be must apply to them for redress, 
instead of redressing himself. The reason of 
this is evident, for they would be better judges 


184 


DUTY OP CITIZENS. 


how much he was injured, and what redress 
should <W made, than he would be himself, 
because it is a bad rule to allow any man to be 
the judge in his own case. This would be the 
second law of this community. 

These two laws then would be, first, that no 
one should interfere with his neighbor's rights , in 
any manner whatever; and secondly, if any 
one did thus interfere, that the injured person 
should not attempt to redress himself but should 
leave the subject to be decided upon by the whole 
community. 

In process of time these laws would have to 
be subdivided, as there would be various forms 
of injury. A man might encroach upon his 
neighbor’s land. This would require one form 
of redress. One might steal by day, and 
another by night; one might break open a 
house, another might steal a horse; each one 
requiring a separate form of punishment. And 
so of redress of grievances ; one might strike 
another, and a second might burn his house; 
these would have to be distinguished, and all 
these forms of crime be defined, so that the 
innocent might be distinguished from the guilty, 
and the guilty punished according to their 
deserts. 

As this community increased in number, and 
it became necessary to make a great many laws, 


DUTY OF CITIZENS. 


185 


it would be impossible for them all to meet on 
every occasion that presented itself. They 
would therefore be obliged to appoint a few 
persons in their place to meet for this purpose. 
Eight or ten would unite together and select a 
prudent and wise man, and agree to be bound 
by what he should consent to. These dele¬ 
gates would be legislators , and such an assembly 
would be a legislature . 

But after the laws were made, when cases of 
injury became frequent, all the community 
could not meet together to decide between two 
men who had a difficulty with each other. 
They would, therefore, be obliged to appoint 
some persons who should make it their busi¬ 
ness to hear causes, and decide according to 
law. This would save a great deal of time, 
and would also insure a much better adminis¬ 
tration of justice. Such men would be judges , 
and when they were assembled they would be 
called a court . 

And, besides, after they had decided what 
was right, and how a bad man should be pun¬ 
ished, it would be necessary that some one 
should carry their sentence into effect. Such 
persons are called executive officers. Governors, 
sheriffs , and constables , belong to 'this class. 

Now, all these officers taken together, legis¬ 
lators, judges, governors, sheriffs, etc., are 




186 


DUTY OF CITIZENS. 


called the government of a country. They are 
persons appointed by the people, in some mode 
or other, to make laws and to carry them into 
execution, so that no man shall interfere with 
his neighbor’s rights; and so that if he does 
he shall be obliged to make redress, and shall 
be punished for his crime. 

Hence, the duties of man as a citizen are in 
general these: 

1. As he agrees that no one shall interfere 
with the rights of his neighbor, he is bound to 
obey this law himself, that is, he is bound, in 
all his intercourse respecting the personal lib¬ 
erty, character, reputation, property, and fam¬ 
ilies of others, to obey the law of reciprocity, 
or to do unto others as he would that others 
should do unto him. 

2. If other men disobey this law, and injure 
him, he is bound not to take redress into his 
own hands, but to leave it to the society ; that 
is, the courts of law to whom he has agreed 
that all such cases shall be referred. 

3. As he has agreed that all laws shall be 
made by legislators, he is bound to obey all the 
laws which they make, consistent with the power 
which he has entrusted into their hands. 

4. As he is a member of the community 
which has promised to protect every individual, 
he is bound to use all means necessary to en- 


DUTY OF CITIZENS. 


187 


sure that protection. He is bound to make 
every effort in his power to secure to every in¬ 
dividual, whether high or low, rich or poor, the 
full enjoyment of his rights; and if he be 
wronged, the full redress for injury. 

5. As the purposes of government cannot 
be carried on without expense, since governors, 
legislators, judges, etc., must be paid for their 
services, and as every one has the benefit of 
these services, every one ought willingly to 
bear his share of the pecuniary burden. 

To illustrate what has been said in the pre¬ 
ceding remarks. Suppose a man had stolen 
your horse, and there were no laws, and no 
government. You might go to him and ask 
him for it, and he would refuse to give it up. 
Suppose you attempted to take the horse away 
by force, the man might resist you, and, if he 
were stronger than you, would drive you away 
and injure you, or perhaps kill you to prevent 
you from troubling him. You thus could have 
no remedy, and the next day he might take your 
cow, or turn you out of your house, and you 
could not help it. 

But suppose there were laws, and a govern¬ 
ment ; observe now how differently you would 
be situated. In this case there would be a law 
to prevent men from stealing; and judges to 
decide whether a man had stolen, and officers 


188 


DUTY OF CITIZENS. 


to punish the thief, and to reclaim the property 
taken. 

Let us now suppose the horse to be stolen. 
Instead of going to the man who stole it, you 
would go to one of the judges, called justices 
of the peace, and inform him that the man had 
stolen your property. He would immediately 
send for the thief, and bring him before him. 
If the thief would not come, the sheriff who was 
sent would have power to order all the men in 
the town to help him. You would then tell your 
story and the man would tell his, and if you 
could prove the horse to be yours the justice 
would give him up to you, and would send the 
man to jail to be tried for the crime of stealing. 
When the judges of the higher court came to¬ 
gether, twelve men of the neighborhood would 
be appointed, who are called jurors, or jurymen. 
The thief would then be brought before them, 
and the witnesses would be examined to prove 
whether the man did steal the horse, or whether 
he got him in some other way. The judge 
would explain the law, and the jurors would de¬ 
cide whether the man was guilty or not guilty. 
If he was not guilty, he would be set at liberty. 
If he was guilty, the judge would pronounce the 
punishment of the law for stealing. If it was 
imprisonment, the sheriff would take him to 
prison, and he would be kept there until the 
time expired for which he was sentenced. 


QUESTIONS. 


189 


We see from this case how much better every 
one can obtain justice where there are laws and 
government, than when there are none, and 
hence how great a blessing it is to live in a 
civilized country where such laws exist. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Could men live together without laws and gov¬ 
ernment? 

2. Under what circumstances could they live thus? 

3. What creates the neoessity for laws and a gov¬ 
ernment? 

4. Suppose men all chose to act unjustly, and there 
were no laws to restrain them, what would be the result? 

5. Would laws be of any use without a government? 
Why? 

6. Why would it not answer to allow every man to 
redress his own grievances ? 

7. What are the two great laws of society, on which 
all the others are founded £ 

8. Explain, in your own language, what is meant 
by a legislature. 

9. How is a legislature appointed? 

10. Explain, in your own language, what is meant 
by a judge. 

11. What is the use of judges ? 

12. What is the use of sheriffs and constables? 

13. Suppose a man injures me, and I undertake to 
punish him myself; do I violate the law of my coun¬ 
try? Why? 

14. Suppose a man has committed a crime, and I 
join a mob to tear down his house or to punish him in 
any manner; do I violate the law? Why? 


190 


FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 


15. Suppose a law is made, which I think unjust; 
have I a right to violate it? Why? 

16. Suppose I see a mob assaulting a man, and I 
quietly look on; am I innocent ? What ought I to do? 

17. Suppose a mob commit an injury, and I praise 
their courage, and apologize for their crime; am I 
innocent? 

18. Suppose one man, by his abuse, irritates the pas¬ 
sions of other men, and they unite and injure him; 
which is to blame, he or they, or both? Which ought 
to be punished ? 

19. Suppose a man should owe you money, and would 
not pay it; would you have a right to take his property 
yourself, wherever you could find it? Why? 

20. What must you do in order to recover your due ? 

SECTION II. 

OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 

In the preceding section I have described 
what is called an elective government. By this 
is meant one in which all officers are either 
chosen by the people, that is, by the whole 
society, or are appointed by those who are thus 
chosen. Thus, in this country, legislators, gov¬ 
ernors, presidents, etc., are chosen by the people, 
and judges and other officers are either chosen 
by the people, or are appointed by the legis-, 
la,tors. 

But all governments are not elective. Some 
are hereditary; that is, a man succeeds to 


FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 


191 


office by inheritance. In this form of govern¬ 
ment, if a king dies his son becomes a king in 
his place ; that is, he inherits his office in the 
same manner as he inherits his house or lands. 
And if a man is a legislator his son becomes, in 
the same manner, a legislator after him. 

Again, some governments are partly heredi¬ 
tary and partly elective. When this is the case 
some of the offices are hereditary and others are 
elective; that is, the persons who hold some 
of them are chosen by the people, and those 
who hold others succeed to them by inherit¬ 
ance. 

But there are other forms of government 
besides these. A government may be either a 
Monarchy, an Aristocracy, or a Republic. 

A Monarchy is a government in which the 
chief authority is vested in one person, who is 
called a king. If the king is chosen it is 
called an elective monarchy, if he succeeds to 
his office by inheritance it is called a hereditary 
monarchy. 

In some cases a king is allowed to make 
laws according to his own will, without any one 
to control him, and to do what he pleases with 
the lives and properties of his subjects. This 
is called an absolute monarchy, or a despotism. 
In other cases the king is bound by certain rules 
which he must not transgress, or is obliged, 



192 


FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 


before he can make any law, to obtain the con¬ 
sent of some other individuals. This is called 
a limited monarchy. 

An Aristocracy is a form of government in 
which the whole power is in the hands of a few 
persons. An aristocracy has generally been 
either hereditary, or else the members of the 
aristocracy themselves fill the vacancies which 
may occur in their number. 

A Republic is such a form of government as I 
have before described, in which all offices are 
either held by election of the people, or else 
by appointment by those who are thus elected. 

These forms of government are sometimes 
simple and sometimes mixed. 

Thus, the government of Russia is a simple 
monarchy, without any limitation of power, the 
Emperor being assisted by such councils only 
as he may himself appoint. 

2. The government of Great Britain is a 
mixed monarchy, composed of three branches : 
the king, the house of lords, and the house of 
commons. 

The office of King is hereditary, and the 
king is the chief magistrate of the realm. 

The Lords or Peers form the second branch 
of the legislature, and their office is also hered¬ 
itary. They are at first appointed by the king, 
but after their appointment they and their 


QUESTIONS. 


193 


successors hold their office perpetually. The 
third branch of the legislature is the House of 
Commons. These are elected by the people as 
in a republic. No law can be passed, that is, 
become binding on the people, unless it be 
agreed to by all these three branches, namely, 
the King, the Lords, and the Commons. 

Under any of these forms of government, if 
the men who hold offices be virtuous, and de¬ 
sirous of promoting the welfare of their fellow- 
men,there maybe peace, security and happiness. 
The misfortune, however, to which some of them 
are liable is, that when officers are vicious, un¬ 
feeling and oppressive, there are no means of 
controlling their power without revolution and 
civil war. On the contrary, just in so far as 
a government is elective the power is placed in 
the hands of the people, who are then in no 
danger of being oppressed by government. 
Their only danger then is that they will oppress 
each other. "The danger from this source is 
however far greater than is commonly appre¬ 
hended. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Explain, in your own language, the difference 
betweon an elective and an hereditary government. 

2. Explain the difference between a monarchy, an 
aristocracy, and a republic. 

3. Explain the difference between an unlimited and 
a limited monarchy. 


194 


FORM OF GOVERNMENT 


4. What is the difference between the government 
of Russia and that of England ? 

5. How may a government oppress the people? 

6. How may the people oppress each other? 

7. When the people oppress each other, what rem¬ 
edy exists against injury? 

8. What is the greatest security against oppression 
many government? 

ff. What effect would the Christian religion exert 
upon national liberty, if i£ were universally obeyed? 

10, What effect has it'had already ? 

11. Which are the freest governments on, earth? 

SECTION IIL 

THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 

This country was first peopled by emigrant 
colonies, principally from England, who landed 
on various parts of the Atlantic coast, from 
Maine to Georgia. Each of these colonies had 
its separate charter, or form of government, 
which it established as soon as its settlement 
was formed. As they increased in numbers, 
their boundaries were defined, and as so many 
separate governments they held possession of 
the whole coast. They were all, however, de¬ 
pendent upon the king of England, from whom 
they received their charters, and by whom 
most of their governors, and frequently their 
judges and other officers, were appointed. 

As the colonies increased in power, diffi- 


IN THE UNITED STATES. 195 

culties sprung up between them and Great 
Britain, or the mother country, as it was com¬ 
monly called. These ended in the American 
revolution, by which the colonies were forever 
separated from Great Britain, and were acknowl¬ 
edged by the whole world to be at liberty to. 
form a government for themselves, on such 
principles, and in such manner, as they chose. 

Soon after the revolution, delegates were ap¬ 
pointed by these several colonies, or States, as 
they were then called, to form a constitution, 
or, in other words, to establish a form of gov¬ 
ernment. This was completed on the 17th of 
September, 1787, and was submitted to the 
several States for approval. This having been 
subsequently approved by all the States, is the 
form of government under which we now live. 

The general features of this form of govern¬ 
ment are the following: 

The separate States retain all the original 
powers which they possessed when they sepa¬ 
rated from the British nation, except such as 
they have given up to the general government. 
Thus, they all elect their own officers, make 
their own laws, and punish offenders against 
them, and are sovereign in everything that 
does not interfere with the general good of the 
whole. 

On the other hand, whatever belongs to the 


196 


FORM OF GOVERNMENT 


welfare of the whole, and not to that of the 
individual States, is vested in the general gov¬ 
ernment, or in Congress, which is its agent. 
The extent, however, within which this power 
may be exercised is limited by the constitu¬ 
tion.* 

The head of the government in this country 
is called the President; he holds his office for 
four years, and is chosen by electors, who are 
elected either by the people or by the legisla¬ 
tures of the several States. 

The legislature of the United States is divided 
into two branches, the Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

The Senate is composed of two members 
from each State. The members hold their office 
for six years, and are chosen by the legisla¬ 
tures of the several States. 

The members of the House of Representa¬ 
tives are elected by the people of the several 
States, every State being entitled to one for 
every 70,680 inhabitants. They hold their 
office for two years. No law can be enacted 
unless it receive the sanction of the President, 
and of both houses of Congress, except both 
Houses pass it by a majority of two thirds, in 
opposition to the President; it then becomes a 
law without his consent. 

The President and Senate have power to form 


IN THE UNITED STATES. 


197 


treaties with foreign powers, and to appoint all 
the principal officers of the government, as 
judges of the United States Courts, ambassa¬ 
dors, officers in the army and navy, etc. 

The judges of the United States Court have 
power to try all causes of violation, of the laws 
of the United States, and all causes between 
citizens of the different States, and all causes 
which arise between a citizen of the United 
States and a foreigner. All offences against 
the laws of the several States are tried by the 
judges of the respective States. Each State 
has its own form of government, consisting of 
a Governor and either one or two legislative 
assemblies. These enact laws for their own 
State, appoint officers, and in general perform 
all the offices necessary for the welfare of that 
portion of the people which they represent. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. How was this country first peopled by Europeans ? 

2. How were they governed before the Revolution? 

3. What produced the Revolution? 

4. In what condition were they when the Revolution 
was completed? 

5. What is the difference between the power of the 
States, and that of the United States, or general gov¬ 
ernment ? 

6. How long do the President, Senators, and mem¬ 
bers of the House of Representatives, hold their 
offices ? 


17 * 


198 


QUESTIONS. 


7. What powers have the Senate, different from those 
of the House of Representatives ? 

8. Suppose a citizen of the United States to owe a 
foreigner; to what court must the foreigner apply for 
redress ? 

9. Suppose a cause in law to arise between two cit¬ 
izens of different States; where must the cause be 
tried ? Give an example. - 


199 


DUTIES OF BENEVOLENCE. 


CHAPTER I. 

BENEVOLENCE. 

We have thus far treated of those duties 
which we owe to man, on the principle of reci¬ 
procity, and for which he can have a just claim 
upon us. They are those duties which, while 
they allow us to pursue our own happiness as 
we please, forbid us in any manner to interfere 
with the right which every one possesses, to 
pursue his own happiness in the same manner. 

If men would only obey this law the world 
would be much happier than it is. There would 
be no oppression, no robbery, no slander, no 
injury of any kind, but all men would live in 
peace and quietness. 

But in order to render the world as happy as 
it can be, something more is necessary. We 
are required not only to let our neighbors alone 
and do them no injury, but also positively to do 
them good. This is the law of benevolence. 

For instance. Every one is liable to be sick, 
and multitudes of people are always sick. 



200 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


When sick they are unable to work for a live¬ 
lihood, or even to take care of themselves. 

If then there were no one to take care of 
them, they would perish. Everybody is liable 
to accidents, and if no one would help a man 
in distress, he must suffer. How wicked it 
would be if a little girl were run over by a 
carriage, and I were to leave her to be trodden 
to death, because I did not owe her anything, 
and wished to mind my own business. Every 
■ one feels that though I had never seen her 
before, and were never to see her again, yet I 
would be under obligations to render her all 
the aid in my power; that is s every one feels 
that I am, and that every man is, under the 
obligation of benevolence. 

But again. Suppose that in a neighborhood 
there were a large number of children who did 
not know how to read or to write, and so were 
deprived of all the pleasure of reading good 
books, and especially of reading the Bible. 
Now suppose that there were in this neighbor¬ 
hood two young men, and one of them said he 
did not owe these children anything, and should 
mind his own business. But suppose the other, 
without asking whether they owed him or not, 
should collect them together in school, and 
teach them to read, and write, and cipher, and 
thus put them all in the way to be useful and 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


201 


happy men and women. Which of these should 
we love the best? Which should we say did 
his duty ? Which of them should we say was. 
acting in such a manner as best to please his 
Father in heaven? 

Again, suppose these children were very 
wicked, and swore, and lied, and stole. If any 
good person saw and heard them act thus, he 
would be greatly grieved. I do not know but 
it would be his duty to have the worst and 
largest of them punished. Now suppose one 
man should say, it is my duty as a citizen to 
put a stop to such conduct, and I will have 
these little thieves put in jail. But this is all 
I have to do; I will mind my own business, 
and if they go to destruction it is their own 
fault. But suppose another man should go 
among them, and show them the wickedness of 
their conduct, and talk kindly to them, and 
teach them to be good and virtuous, and so be 
the means of making them all pious and vir¬ 
tuous children. Which of these two should 
we like the best? Which should we say did 
his duty to these children ? Which would act 
most in obedience to the Bible ? 

But once more. Suppose these children 
should revile and abuse him, steal his property, 
and when he came to do them good should rid¬ 
icule him, and do all in their power to injure 


202 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


him. He might go away and leave them, say¬ 
ing, I have come here at my own expense, and 
without any reward, to teach these children to 
be virtuous and happy, and all I get in return 
is injur} 7 , abuse, and robbery. I will go away 
and leave them to destruction. Or he might 
say, I do not care how they treat me, I will 
still continue to do them all the good I can. 
The more wickedly they act towards me, the 
more clearly it shows that they need good in¬ 
struction, and I will strive the more to make 
them virtuous and happy. The more they hate 
me, the more I will love them. Now, which of 
these ways of acting would be the most lovely ? 
For which should we think most highly of the 
man ? Which conduct would be most like doing 
our duty ? Which would be most like the ex¬ 
ample of the blessed Saviour? 

If now we reflect upon these cases, we shall 
see that we feel under obligations to benevo¬ 
lence towards men who are unhappy, towards 
those that are wicked, and even towards those 
that injure us. 

That this is the case, is manifest from what the 
blessed Saviour teaches us in Luke vi. 32—36. 

“ If ye love them that love you, what thank 
have ye, for sinners also love those that love 
them ? And if ye do good to those that do 
good to you, what thank have ye, for sinners 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


203 


also do even the same. And if ye lend to those 
of whom ye hope to receive, what thank have 
ye ? for sinners also lend to sinners, to receive 
as much again. But love ye your enemies , and 
do good and lend, hoping for nothing again, 
and your reward shall be great, and ye shall be 
the children of the Highest, for Jhe is kind unto 
the unthankful and the evil. Be ye therefore mer¬ 
ciful, as your Father in heaven is merciful.” 

Thus also Matthew v. 43—48. “ Love your 

enemies ; bless them that curse you ; do good 
to them that hate you, and pray for those that 
despitefully use you and persecute you, that ye 
may be the children (that is, the imitators) of 
your Father who is in heaven; for he maketh his 
sun to rise upon the evil and the good, and send- 
eth his rain upon the just and upon the unjust.” 

The meaning of “ being merciful,” here is 
obvious. It is to promote the happiness of 
those who have no claim upon us, by the law 
of reciprocity, and from whom we can hope for 
nothing by way of remuneration. 

The example after which our benevolence is to 
be fashioned is that of our Father who is in 
heaven. 

This teaches us, 

1. As God is the exhaustless source of hap¬ 
piness to all the creatures whom he has made 
and to whom he is under no possible obliga- 


204 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


tions, so we are commanded to make use of 
our talents and acquisitions and possessions 
for promoting the happiness of our fellows. 
Whatever is given us is given, not for our own 
happiness directly and chiefly, but for our hap¬ 
piness indirectly ; that is, that we may be happy 
by promoting the happiness of others. 

2. God bestows the blessing of his common 
providence without respect to the character of 
the recipient. He sendeth rain on the just and 
on the unjust. We are to follow the same ex¬ 
ample. While our personal attachments and 
our moral esteem are to be reserved for those 
that deserve it, yet our charities are to be 
bestowed wherever there exist those that stand 
in need of them. We ai^e therefore to relieve 
the distressed, to pity the afflicted, to assist 
the needjr, administer to the sick, and instruct 
the ignorant, no matter how undeserving they 
may be, or how much we may dislike their 
moral character. 

3. By the same example we are taught that 
our benevolence is not to be limited by the feel¬ 
ings which the recipient may have towards us. 
God so loved us that', while we were yet sinners, 
Christ died for us. When we were enemies, 
we were reconciled to God by the death of his 
Son. Thus our blessed Saviour spent his life 
in doing good to liisbitterest enemies, unmoved 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


205 


by the most atrocious and most malignant in¬ 
justice. So we are commanded to bless those 
that curse us, do good to those that hate us, 
and pray for those that despitefully use us and 
persecute us. 

The reasons, aside from the example of God, 
which enforce this duty upon us, are various. 
Some of them are the following: 

1. G od has made it the condition of the par¬ 
don of our offences against him. “If ye for¬ 
give not men their trespasses, neither will 
your heavenly Father forgive your trespasses.” 
Read the parable of the two servants, Matt, 
xviii. 23—35. 

2. Those virtues which are called into exer¬ 
cise by ill treatment from our fellow-men are 
those which exhibit the highest moral excel¬ 
lence, and are most essential to that character 
which fits us for heaven. Such are meekness, 
patience, forgiveness. It is to such tempers 
of mind that a special blessing is promised. 

The virtues which man rewards may proceed 
from the love and the fear of man. It is those 
for the exercise of which we can expect no 
reward from men , that are the proper evidence 
of our love and obedience to God. Thus it is 
that these virtues are held forth to us as the 
evidences of true piety. See our Lord’s descrip¬ 
tion of the last judgment, in Matthew xxv. 

18 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


206 

u Inasmuch as ye have clone it (that is mercy) 
unto the very least of these, ye have done it 
unto me.” 

I might add that the law of benevolence 
applies to man as man, that is, to man irre¬ 
spective of any of the temporary relations in 
which he may stand to us. It makes no matter 
whether he be of our kindred or of another, 
a fellow-citizen or an alien, a Christian or an 
infidel, it is enough that he is a man, and this 
entitles him, under the law of God, to all the 
benefits of the law of benevolence. Nay, in 
one sense, the fewer the ties that bind him to 
us, the more glorious is the act of goodness, 
because it is under these circumstances that 
we can cherish the least hope of reward, and 
the more evident will be the proof of our dis¬ 
interestedness. It would have been noble in 
Howard to have visited the prisons of England 
alone, but it was more noble to extend his 
inquiries to those of France, the national enemy 
of England. It would have been glorious to 
have died a martyr to the cause of benevolence 
at home, but how much more so was it to die 
in a remote province of the Russian empire, in 
a town of which the existence would scarcely 
be remembered but for the fact that it witnessed 
his last deeds of mercy, and guards his sacred 


QUESTIONS. 


207 


remains until the morning of the resurrec¬ 
tion. 

If this command is given to man, I see not 
why it is not equally obligatory on nations. 
They seem to me to be under the same obliga¬ 
tions to conduct towards each other on the 
principles of benevolence as individuals ; that 
is, to make it a fundamental principle of their 
policy to do each other good by all the means 
which God has placed in their power. 

We shall, in the succeeding chapter, treat of 
benevolence to the unhappy, to the wicked, and 
to the injurious. 


QUESTIONS. 

1. Do we perform our whole duty, if we simply ab¬ 
stain from injuring others? Illustrate this by an ex¬ 
ample of your own. 

2. If we merely abstain from injury, what class of 
duties do we perform, and what class do we omit? 

3. How do you feel towards those that will do noth¬ 
ing for others more than merely abstain from injury? 

4. How do you feel towards those who endeavor to 
do all the good they can to others, whether they be 
friends or enemies? 

5. What should these feelings teach you ? 

6. What are the precepts of the blessed Saviour on 
this subject? 

7. What was the example of the blessed Saviour? 

8. What do we learn from the example of God to¬ 
wards us ? 

9. Suppose God were to bestow no favors upon us, 


208 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


but those that we have deserved , what would be our 
condition? 

10. What favors does he bestow upon us, that we 
have really deserved ? 

11. In what manner has God connected the forgive¬ 
ness of our own offences with our forgiveness of those 
of others ? 

12. Which class of virtues are most acceptable to 
God; those of reciprocity, or those of benevolence? 

13. How many reasons can you give for this? 

14. How extensive are our obligations to benev¬ 
olence ? 

15. In what respect does the law of benevolence 
apply to nations? 

16. Were nations to act upon this principle towards 
each other, what effect would it produce upon war? 


CHAPTER II. 

SECTION I. 

BENEVOLENCE TO THE NECESSITOUS. 

A man may be necessitous from poverty, 
from sickness, or decrepitude, or from igno¬ 
rance. 

Simple poverty in general, so long as a man 
has the ability to labor, does not render him 
an object of charity. If a man does not pos¬ 
sess the means of subsistence he should work 
for them. What we are generally required to 
do in such a case is to furnish men with work, 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


209 


and thus enable them to support themselves. 
It is no kindness either to the individual or to 
society, to support him in idleness. Such is 
the nature of the benevolence of God. While 
he bestows the means of support upon all, giv¬ 
ing us food and harvests, he still gives them 
only as the result of labor. The apostle Paul 
also taught that if a man would not work, 
neither should he eat. 

To this, however, there are exceptions. Thus, 
a family may, by the providence of God, be 
deprived of their means of labor. Such cases 
arise from shipwreck, from fire, from flood, or 
sometimes from the want of employment, in 
manufacturing districts. In general, when the 
providence of God, and not a man’s idleness, 
renders him 'necessitous, he is, by this act of 
God, pointed out to us as an object of benevo¬ 
lence. Another exception is, where the labor 
of parents is insufficient for the support of their 
children. Such is the case, very frequently, 
where widows are left with several small chil¬ 
dren, and still more impressively, when children 
have lost both of their parents. In both cases 
some or all must perish if the aid of benevo¬ 
lence do not interpose. 

2. Sickness. Here the providence of God 
takes away a man’s ability to labor, and he 
needs, more than ever, the comforts which labor 


210 


OF BENEVOLENCE. 


provides. Without assistance, the rich would 
then suffer; how much more must this be the 
case with the poor. When such claims as these 
are made upon our charity, not only our 
pecuniary bounty, but our personal assistance 
should be freely rendered. 

3. Old Age. Though old age is not always 
accompanied with sickness, it generally is by 
decrepitude, and frequently with loneliness. 
Whatever it is in our power to do to, mitigate 
the pains and alleviate the burdens of age is 
manifestly a duty of benevolence, and, in some 
sort, of filial affection. 

Such are the instances under this head which 
demand our benevolence. The rules to be 
observed are easily to be seen. 

1. The poor, who, either by sickness or old 
age, are unable to labor at all, should be wholly 
supported. 

2. The poor, who, by sickness, old age, or 
orphanage, are able only in part to support 
themselves, should be assisted. 

3. Those who are unable immediately to 
obtain work should be relieved for the 
present , and work should be procured for them. 
The greatest kindness to any man is to enable 
him to help himself. 

4. It is a very great act of kindness to pro¬ 
vide means by which the poor may be enabled 


OP BENEVOLENCE. 


211 


to preserve and accumulate their small earnings, 
such as savings banks, and institutions of this 
sort. These are the true means- of rendering 
the industrious independent, and they have laid 
the foundations of the fortunes of thousands. 

So far as the benefactor is concerned, it is to 
be remarked : 

1. That the duty of benevolence is imposed 
upon all. Every one may not be able to bestow 
money upon others, but every man may render 
assistance in some form to the distressed, and 
every man may show sympathy with the afflicted. 
Children may be benevolent as well as men and 
women. If they would devote a part of the 
money which they ■spend in toys, to purchase 
food for the sick, or if they were to share their 
comforts and delicacies with their poorer neigh¬ 
bors, it would be a most excellent mode of 
improving themselves in virtue. 

2. Those modes of benevolence which bring 
us into immediate contact with the sufferers, 
are always to be preferred. It is much better 
to bestow charity ourselves than to give it to 
others to bestow, though to give it to others to 
bestow is better than not to give it at all. 
Nothing has a better effect upon our hearts, 
nothing tends more to awaken gratitude to God, 
than personal sympathy with the distresses of 
our fellows. 


212 


OF EDUCATION. 


3. And, lastly, inasmuch as charity should 
be a religious service, like prayer, it should be 
as much as possible in private. Our. alms 
should be in secret, and our Father who seeth 
in secret will himself reward us openly. 

OF EDUCATION. 

Every one must see how great a misfortune 
it is to be unable to read and write and cipher. 
A person who is thus ignorant has scarcely any 
means of acquiring knowledge, and can neither 
read the Word of God, nor even read a letter 
sent to him by a friend. It must then be very 
pleasing to God, for those who understand 
these branches of knowledge to teach those 
who are ignorant. 

A very excellent opportunity of this kind is 
afforded in the Sabbath schools which exist in 
almost every town in our country. Every 
young person who desires to cultivate benevo¬ 
lence, and to obey God, ought to engage in 
this excellent charity. The good that we may 
do in thus rescuing a child from ignorance and 
vice is incalculable. 

And besides this these schools afford us an 
opportunity of instructing the young, not only 
in human learning, but also in the Bible, which 
contains the only knowledge that can save their 
souls. What can be more pleasing to God than 


d 


QUESTIONS. 


213 


to behold young persons showing their grati¬ 
tude for the favors which they have received, 
by immediately conferring the same favors upon 
others ? 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Suppose a strong and healthy man asks me for 
money, am I under obligation, simply because he is 
without money, to give him any? Why? 

2. What ought I to do for him? 

3. Is it better to give hini work or money? Why? 

4. What example have I to justify this? 

5. Suppose, however, I found that this man’s house 
had been burned down last night, and all of his family’s 
clothing and food consumed; what ought I then to do ? 

6. Suppose, by some act of God, all the manufacto¬ 
ries in rhy neighborhood were stopped, and the labor¬ 
ers could get no work; what ought I to do? 

7. Suppose a widow has been left with several small 
children, and it required a dollar a day to support them, 
while she could, with all her labor, earn but a half a dol¬ 
lar a day. Is she an object of charity, and to what 
amount? 

8. What is our duty to the sick and the afflicted? 

9. What does Christ teach us on this subject? 
Where does he speak on this subject? 

10. Does his precept enjoin anything besides the giv¬ 
ing of money? 

11. Are the poor under obligation to be benevolent? 

12. How can they be benevolent without money ? 

13. Why is it better to relieve a sufferer ourselves, 
than to give money to another to relieve them ? 

14. Why should charity be in secret ? 

15. Is there any charity in teaching others ? 


214 BENEVOLENCE TO THE WICKED 

16. Have young persons any particular means of 
charity which devolve specially upon them ? 

SECTION II. 

BENEVOLENCE TO THE WICKED. 

So far as we have gone, we have considered 
solely our duty to those who are unhappy. 
We now come to consider our duty to another 
class, those that are wicked. 

We have seen that if a man is unhappy from 
sickness, or age, or poverty, it is our duty to 
relieve him. But a wicked man is unhappy in 
the very worst sense, for there is no misery so 
great as sin. And, still more, he is always the 
cause of wickedness in others. He is like a 
man sick with some infectious disease, which he 
is in danger of communicating to all that are 
around him. And still more, the pains of this 
life terminate at death, but the pains of sin at 
death are infinitely increased, and are, after 
that, incapable of cure forever. 

Now all these considerations teach us that a 
wicked man is, above all others, an object of 
pity. And hence it is our special duty to try 
to benefit him by rendering him virtuous. 

•Many people say that if a man be wicked 
we should shun him and let him alone. This 
is true in one sense. We should not make him 
our companion, we should not put ourselves in 


BENEVOLENCE TO THE WICKED. 215 


clanger of learning his wicked habits. If a 
man is a drunkard, we should not go and drink 
with him ; if a man is profane, we should not 
associate with him. All this is so ; but this is 
no reason why we should not try to reclaim 
the drunkard, and teach the profane person to 
fear an oath. It is one thing to adopt men as 
our friends and associates, and another thing 
to try to do them good. 

The duties which we owe to men who are 
wicked are the following: 

1. We should consider them when in afflic¬ 
tion or distress to be as truly objects of our 
pity as other men. That we should feel as 
much pleasure in relieving them as in relieving 
the virtuous is perhaps impossible. But this 
does not show that it is not as much our duty 
to do so. 

2. We should, by all means in our power, 
labor to reclaim them from vice. 

This may be done: 

1. By example. By acting virtuously our¬ 
selves we administer the kindest, and frequently 
the most effectual reproof to the vicious. If 
we are in their company, therefore, we should 
always resolutely show that we are on the side 
of virtue, and have no sympathy with vice. 
Though they may ridicule us, and dislike us, 
yet love to them should teach us to bear this 
patiently for their good. 


216 BENEVOLENCE TO THE WICKED. 

2. By precept. We should, by suitable con¬ 
versation, endeavor to convince men of the 
evil of their course, and urge and encourage 
them to return to virtue. Advice of this sort 
is generally vastly more effective if given in 
private. 

3. As the truths of religion are by far the 
most efficient agents in restoring men to virtue, 
we should use all proper means to circulate 
them among men, not only by conversation, 
but also by the distribution of religious books 
and specially of the Scriptures. 

4. As all men are our brethren, and all men 
need moral assistance, it is, manifestly, our im¬ 
perative duty to reclaim the wicked as widely 
as possible. As by far the greater part of men 
are utterly ignorant of the way of salvation, 
hence it is our important duty to send the 
gospel everywhere to the destitute. 

5. Such is the darkness of the mind of men, 
and they are so obstinately bent on doing 
wrong, that we can hope for little success in 
this mode of benevolence without the assist¬ 
ance of a higher power. God has promised 
to grant this assistance in answer to prayer. 
Hence, it is also our particular duty to pray for 
the influences of the Spirit of God to attend 
our labors and the labors of all who are en¬ 
gaged in the work of benefiting mankind. 


BENEVOLENCE TO THE INJURIOUS. 217 


QUESTIONS. 

1. Why is a wicked man an object of benevolence? 

2. Why is he, specially , an object of benevolence? 

3. If it is our duty to shun the wicked, how can it 
be our duty to seek after them, and try to reclaim them? 

4. Suppose a wicked man is sick, or has broken his 
leg; does his wickedness excuse me from the duties of 
benevolence ? 

5. If men are wicked, should we follow their bad 
example ? 

6. What reason does their wickedness offer, why we 
should set them a good example ? 

7. Is there any benevolence in persuading men to 
be virtuous ? How can you show this to be benevolent? 

8. What are the most efficacious means of rendering 
men better? 

9. Do all men need this kind of benevolence? 

10. How wide is the limit of this means of doing good ? 

11. Have we any reason to hope that God will, in a 
special manner, assist our efforts to make men better, 
if we ask him to do it? 

12. What duty devolves upon us in consequence of 
his assurance to this effect? 

SECTION III . 

BENEVOLENCE TO THE INJURIOUS. 

We now proceed to another case. Suppose 
a person to be injurious ; that is, suppose that, 
besides being wicked, he has been wicked to 
us, that is, has injured us. What is our duty 
to him in such a case? 


218 BENEVOLENCE TO THE INJURIOUS. 

1. Inasmuch as the action is wicked, it should 
excite our moral disapprobation as truly as 
if it were done to any one else. We should, 
under all circumstances, dislike vice and love 
virtue. 

2. But if we consider the person liimseif, in¬ 
asmuch as he is wicked, he is unhappy, and 
hence we are bound to pity and to relieve, 
that is, if possible to reform him. 

3. As the injury is done to us, it is our duty 
to forgive him. This is the duty specialty 
required of us by our blessed Saviour. If ye 
forgive not men their trespasses, neither will 
your heavenly Father forgive your trespasses. 
On our obedience to this command, therefore, 
is suspended our only hope of salvation. 

4. As the injury is done to us, it presents us 
with a special opportunity of doing good to the 
injurious person by setting before him an ex¬ 
ample of goodness. Hence, it is our duty to 
overcome his evil by good ; that is, by treating 
him with special kindness, and manifesting a 
special regard for his happiness. Thus says 
our blessed Saviour, Bless them that curse 
you, do good to them that hate you, and pray 
for them that despitefully use you and persecute 
you. 

How much better is this way of settling dif¬ 
ficulties, than that of retaliation. In this mode 


BENEVOLENCE TO THE INJURIOUS. 219 

both parties are made better; by retaliation, 
both are made worse. By the one, injuries 
would be multiplied without end ; by the other, 
they cease immediately by the mere exercise 
of goodness. 

While this, however, is the case, it does not 
prevent us from taking the proper means for 
punishing men who not only offend against us, 
but also offend against society . If a man 
break into my house, it does not follow, from 
what has been said, that I should not take 
proper means to have him put in prison. 
Otherwise he might go on robbing to the end 
of his life, which would be the greatest misfor¬ 
tune both to him and to others. While I may 
forgive him for the injuries done to me, and 
use all means to reclaim him, my duty to 
others as well as to him obliges me to take 
such means as may prevent his going on in his 
course of wickedness. 

But, on the other hand, society should look 
upon him as a being whom it is their duty to 
improve. Hence prisoners should be always 
treated humanely, and be comfortably clothed 
and fed, and every means should be used to 
render them virtuous. Prisons would thus be 
schools of moral reformation, and would be the 
greatest possible blessing both to the wicked 
themselves, and to the rest of the community. 


220 


QUESTIONS, 


Houses of refuge for juvenile delinquents 
have been a most valuable blessing to the com¬ 
munity, and have saved hundreds of youth from 
destruction. All prisons should be of the same 
character, and would then, I believe, be at¬ 
tended with the same result. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What do you mean by an injurious man? 

2. What feelings should we have to a bad action , by 
which we have been injured? 

3. What feelings should we have towards the person 
himself, who has injured us ? 

4. What special duty devolves upon us, in distinc¬ 
tion from others, from the fact that we have been in¬ 
jured? 

5. What good can we derive from an injury? 

6. Are there any virtues called into exercise by 
injury more than by any other cause ? 

7. What do you mean by retaliation? Give an 
example. 

8. Give an example of retaliation, and of overcoming 
evil with good. 

9. Which produces the best effect upon the injurious 
person? 

10. Which is the best way of repaying injury? 

11. Does this prevent us from punishing men who 
violate the law of society? 

12. Is it, or is it not, for the good of an offender 
himself, to be punished ? 

13. With what end should prisons be constructed 
and governed ? 


OUR DUTIES TO BRUTES. 


221 


CHAPTER III. 

OF OUR DUTIES TO BRUTES. 

Brutes, like ourselves, are sensitive beings, 
that is, they are capable of pleasure or pain, 
probably to as great a degree as we are. They 
differ from us principally in being destitute of 
the moral faculty. They do not know right 
from wrong. 

They are not, however, on a level with us. 
Hence they cannot claim the right of reci¬ 
procity. We are at liberty to diminish their 
means of happiness, or to take their lives for 
our own happiness, if our necessities, and fre¬ 
quently if our innocent conveniences demand it. 
God has given them to us for food, and hence 
has placed their lives in our power. But we 
have no right to use this power for any other 
purposes or in any other manner than as he has 
permitted. Thus, 

1. We may take their lives for food, if we 
need it. A man may slay a bullock if he needs 
it to eat, but he has no right to kill one for 
sport. A man on a prairie may shoot a deer 
or a buffalo, if he wants the flesh for food, or 
the skin for clothing, but he has no right to do 
it for the purpose of improving his skill in 
marksmanship. So, if we wish a bird for food, 


222 


OUR DUTIES TO BRUTES. 


it is right to shoot it, but it is not right to 
shoot it wantonly or for amusement. Why 
should we, for a momentary pleasure, deprive 
the poor brute of all the blessings of existence ? 

2. We may use them for labor, as we use 
horses for the draft or for the saddle. 

3. But while we thus use them, we are bound 
to use them kindly, and subject them to no 
unnecessary fatigue, and to no unnecessary pain. 
If our necessity require a horse to be overdriven, 
as for instance to preserve life, or to accom¬ 
plish important business, we are at liberty to 
overdrive it. But we have no right to do this 
for our own pleasure, or for the sake of gam¬ 
bling on the speed of animals. 

4. Hence all amusements which consist in 
inflicting pain upon animals, such as horse¬ 
racing, bull-baiting, cock-fighting, are purely 
wicked. God never gave us power over ani¬ 
mals for such purposes. I can conceive of no 
spectacle more revolting than that of an assem¬ 
bly of intelligent beings, collected to witness 
the misery which two brutes inflict upon each 
other. Surely nothing can tend more directly 
to harden men into worse than brutal ferocity. 


QUESTIONS. 


223 


QUESTIONS. 

1. "What is the difference between a brute and a 
man? 

2. In what respect are brutes and men similar to 
each other? 

3. What right have we over them ? Give an exam¬ 
ple in your own language. 

4. Would it be right to shoot a robin, to see how 
correctly you could take aim? 

5. Under what circumstances would it be innocent 
to shoot a bird? 

6. Suppose a physician were called to see a patient 
who must die, if not relieved immediately; would it be 
innocent for him to drive his horse to death, in order 
to save the patient? 

7. Would it be right to drive him thus, on a wager ? 

8. But the horse in both cases is his own property; 
what makes the difference ? 

9. Is it right for young persons to set brute animals 
to fighting? Why? 


END. 
























